Negative Social Reinforcement Research Articles

Experimental analysis of voice volume for children with autism spectrum disorder

AbstractInappropriate prosodic production, or features of speech, is an often observed but rarely treated communication skill deficit in individuals with autism. Expanding on previous literature, we conducted a functional analysis (FA) on the voice volume responses (VVRs) of two children with autism spectrum disorder utilizing similar procedures to those of Edgerton and Wine. Then, we evaluated the efficacy of visual feedback from an app and a function‐based treatment to decrease loud VVRs and increase appropriate VVRs. Results of the FA indicated loud VVRs were maintained by social negative reinforcement for one participant and by both social negative and automatic reinforcement for another. For one participant, the intervention decreased the use of loud VVRs and increased appropriate VVRs. For the other participant, the results of the intervention were inconclusive. Implications of conducting functional analyses and behavioral interventions to treat inappropriate voice volume are discussed.

Expanding a laboratory model for evaluating relapse of caregiver nonadherence.

Caregiver adherence to treatment plans is likely maintained by negative reinforcement and can contact extinction when child responding relapses. When caregiver adherence contacts extinction, caregiver nonadherence, such as reinforcing their child's challenging behavior, relapses, threatening treatment efficacy. Previous laboratory models demonstrating the relapse of caregiver nonadherence only evaluated treatment for behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement, not that maintained by social-negative reinforcement. These models only measured caregiver nonadherence as discrete events, which cannot capture the magnitude of each error. The present study was an evaluation of the relapse of caregiver nonadherence during simulated treatments for escape-maintained challenging behavior. First, caregivers placed demands in a home-like setting and a research confederate responded to these demands in a manner mimicking clinical clients. Next, caregivers were taught to implement treatment in a clinical setting and the confederate's behavior gradually improved. Last, caregivers returned to the home-like setting and confederate challenging behavior relapsed. Nonadherence relapsed for all caregivers, demonstrating the need for additional research on methods for mitigating caregiver relapse during treatment of children's challenging behavior and the usefulness of the proposed measurement system for future research.

Self-injurious behavior of children with autism in Vietnam: A cross sectional study

This study explored self-injurious behavior (SIB) of autistic children in Vietnam through a cross-sectional design. 60 informants, including 57 parents and 3 caregivers completed the questionnaire on problem behavior consisting of aggression, self-injury, stereotyping, property destruction, other problem behaviors and their functions. Results revealed that children experienced all mentioned problem behaviors, especially self-injurious behavior. The topographies of self-injurious behavior of the children included head-hitting, head-scratching, head-banging, hair-pulling, face-hitting, face-puncturing with a pen, ear-scratching, lip-picking, hand-biting, hand-scratching, hand-pinching, and belly-scratching. The most common area of self-injurious behavior is the head. The functions of these problem behaviors were expressed in four types (social positive reinforcement, social negative reinforcement, automatic positive reinforcement and automatic negative reinforcement). Social positive reinforcement appeared as a prominent function.  Out of these 57 children, 21 of them who were autistic with self-injurious behavior went through a functional assessment (FA) in which the four conditions known as attention, tangible items, escape from task/activities, automatic stimulation were tested. The results of functional analysis (FA) further indicated the correspondence between the FAST-R and FA outcome on function of problem behavior, especially self-injurious behavior. Results also showed that the prominent function of these self-injurious behaviors was social function. It means self-injurious behaviors usually occur within a condition of social interaction, especially, in this present study, in the tangible condition. The antecedent of self-injurious behavior is the removal of tangibles (e.g. food, preferred items). This paper contributes to our knowledge of self-injurious behavior of children with autism in Vietnam where empirical research of this field was still very rare.&nbsp

Demonstration of a negative reinforcement preference assessment to determine aversiveness of types of social interaction

AbstractPrior researchers have validated the use of a latency assessment to create a hierarchy of demand aversiveness. Demand latency assessments help to identify high‐aversive demands for use in functional analyses and/or treatment. The current study used the same approach to evaluate aversiveness of social interaction among four individuals who engaged in target behavior maintained by social avoidance. We obtained clear hierarchies in social interaction aversiveness across all participants. For one participant, we also used the social avoidance latency assessment to demonstrate an intervention approach using gradual fading of less‐ to more‐aversive forms of social interactions. These results indicate latency assessments may be applicable to generate hierarchies of aversive situations that may evoke target behavior maintained by social negative reinforcement other than escape from demands, leading to several clinical implications, and future research directions.

Functional analysis and treatment of aggression exhibited by cats toward humans during petting

Human-directed aggression is a common problem that can often result in rehoming or relinquishing the cat as well as injuries and infections for the human. Functional analyses (FAs) have been used to determine the cause of problem behavior by human and nonhuman animals, and treatments developed based on FA results have been proven effective. This study applied this methodology to assess and treat human-directed aggression exhibited by 3 cats during petting. Results suggested that aggression during petting for all 3 cats was maintained by social-negative reinforcement (escape from petting), and differential reinforcement of other behavior plus within-session stimulus fading (escape contingent on the absence of aggression following a specified number of pets that systematically increased as aggression remained low) was effective in decreasing aggression for all 3 cats. All 3 cats were available for adoption through a rescue organization during the study, and all of the cats were adopted after completing treatment.

Dynamic analysis of the rumor propagation model with consideration of the wise man and social reinforcement

Rumor is defined as an unconfirmed public opinion or gossip, which can be propagated through various channels, causing serious economic losses and disturbing the normal order of life. Therefore, studying the rumor propagation mechanism is helpful to implement effective rumor propagation control strategies. In this paper, the wise man is involved in the dynamic process of rumor propagation, and the modified rumor propagation model is established with consideration of social reinforcement and forgetting factors in heterogeneous network. The theories analysis of the model is carried out based on the mean field equation. The rumor propagation threshold is obtained, which is closely related to dual social reinforcement, wisdom conversion rate and forgetting factors. The final size of the rumor is related to positive social reinforcement and negative social reinforcement. Numerical simulations indicate that, the social positive reinforcement promotes rumor propagation and social negative reinforcement suppresses rumor propagation. And the addition of wise men reduces the number of spreaders, thus affecting the process of rumor propagation.

Rumor propagation model with consideration of scientific knowledge level and social reinforcement in heterogeneous network

In the Internet age, rumors bring great panic, research on the mechanism of propagation will help mitigate the bad influence of rumors. In this paper, we propose a modified rumor propagation model with consideration of scientific knowledge level and social reinforcement, and derive the mean-field equations that describe the dynamics of rumor propagation process. We obtain the rumor propagation threshold, which is closely related to scientific knowledge level and social reinforcement. The threshold of rumor propagation is increased by the scientific knowledge level, and the critical threshold of scientific knowledge level is also affected by the rumor propagation probability The results show that rumor propagates more quickly and more widely in people without scientific knowledge, while rumor propagates more slowly and the final size of the rumor is smaller in people with scientific knowledge. Positive social reinforcement will reduce the propagation threshold of rumor propagation, increase the propagation rate, and finally increase the rumor scale. Negative social reinforcement has the opposite effect on rumor. These results are verified by numerical simulations on scale-free networks. Research results also provide a good reference for future studies on how to control rumor propagation.

DR-SCIR Public Opinion Propagation Model with Direct Immunity and Social Reinforcement Effect

The DR-SCIR network public opinion propagation model was employed to study the characters of S-state users stopping transmitting information for the first time and secondary transmission of immune users. The model takes into account symmetry and complexity such as direct immunization and social reinforcement effect, proposes the probability of direct immunity Psr and the probability of transform from the immune state to the hesitant state Prc, and divides public opinion information into positive public opinion and negative public opinion based on whether the public opinion information is confirmed. Simulation results show that, when direct immunity Psr = 0.5, the density of I-state nodes in the model decreased by 54.12% at the peak index; when the positive social reinforcement effect factor b = 10, the density of I-state nodes in the model increased by 16.67% at the peak index; and when the negative social reinforcement effect factor b = -10, the density of I-state nodes in the model decreased by 55.36% at the peak index. It shows that increasing the positive social reinforcement effect factor b can promote the spread of positive public opinion, reducing the negative social reinforcement effect factor b can control the spread of negative public opinion, and direct immunization can effectively suppress the spread of public opinion. This model can help us better analyze the rules of public opinion on social networks, so as to maintain a healthy and harmonious network and social environment.

Validity of a Functional Assessment for Smoking Treatment Recommendations Questionnaire

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States and imposes a substantial economic cost. Despite the well-established potential harm, relapse rates remain high during quit attempts. In the realm of applied behavior analysis, functional assessment has long been recognized as a reliable method to increase effectiveness of treatments for a variety of problem behaviors. Functional assessment may aid in designating targeted treatment for smokers based on the maintaining function(s) of the behavior. The current study (N = 414) sought to assess the reliability and validity of the Functional Assessment of Smoking for Treatment Recommendations (FASTR) and provide preliminary evidence towards a hypothesized factor structure. The full FASTR included five subscales derived from the field of functional behavior assessment: 1) Automatic Positive Reinforcement, 2) Social Positive Reinforcement, 3) Automatic Negative Reinforcement, 4) Social Negative Reinforcement, and 5) Antecedent Stimuli. The full battery of subscales was found to be adequately reliable and valid, with overall sample reliability coefficients ranging from α = 0.69 to α = 0.90. Confirmatory factor analysis of the five-factor model produced acceptable fit indices (CFI = 0.908, TLI = 0.896, RMSEA = 0.059, SRMR = 0.071). A five-factor model performed favorably across several fit indices, providing preliminary validity for the FASTR. Further research should aim to replicate the observed factor structure in other samples and establish the clinical utility of the FASTR.

Functional brain connectivity when cooperation fails

Functional connectivity during cooperative actions is an important topic in social neuroscience that has yet to be answered. Here, we examined the effects of administration of (fictitious) negative social feedback in relation to cooperative capabilities. Cognitive performance and neural activation underlying the execution of joint actions was recorded with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) on prefrontal regions during a task where pairs of participants received negative feedback after their joint action. Performance (error rates (ERs) and response times (RTs)) and intra- and inter-brain connectivity indices were computed, along with the ConIndex (inter-brain/intra-brain connectivity). Finally, correlational measures were considered to assess the relation between these different measures. Results showed that the negative feedback was able to modulate participants’ responses for both behavioral and neural components. Cognitive performance was decreased after the feedback. Moreover, decreased inter-brain connectivity and increased intra-brain connectivity was induced by the feedback, whereas the cooperative task pre-feedback condition was able to increase the brain-to-brain coupling, mainly localized within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Finally, the presence of significant correlations between RTs and inter-brain connectivity revealed that ineffective joint action produces the worst cognitive performance and a more ‘individual strategy’ for brain activity, limiting the inter-brain connectivity. The present study provides a significant contribution to the identification of patterns of intra- and inter-brain functional connectivity when negative social reinforcement is provided in relation to cooperative actions.

Systematic Review of Functional Analysis and Treatment of Elopement (2000-2015).

Elopement is a dangerous behavior that is emitted by a large proportion of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Functional analysis and function-based treatments are critical in identifying maintaining reinforcers and decreasing elopement. The purpose of this review was to identify recent trends in the functional analysis and treatment of elopement, as well as determine the efficacy (standardized mean differences) of recent treatments. Over half of subjects' elopement was maintained by social positive reinforcement, while only 25% of subjects' elopement was maintained by social negative reinforcement. Elopement was rarely maintained by automatic reinforcement, and none of the studies in the current review evaluated treatments to address automatically maintained elopement. Functional communication training was the most common intervention regardless of function. Results are discussed in terms of clinical implications and directions for future research.

Functions of nonsuicidal self-injury in Singapore adolescents: Implications for intervention.

The functions of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) and DSM-IV-TR diagnoses were examined in a sample of thirty ethnic adolescents followed up in a local child and adolescent psychiatric clinic in Singapore. The most commonly endorsed function of NSSI on the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation scale was Automatic Negative Reinforcement (A-NR) and the least being Social Negative Reinforcement (S-NR). Participants were more likely to be diagnosed as having Major Depression Disorder. Depressed adolescents did not differ from non-depressed counterparts in their endorsement of social reinforcement functions. The results suggest that specific psychosocial interventions may help address both automatic and social functions of NSSI in Singapore adolescents.

Functions of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Are Differentially Associated with Suicide Ideation and Past Attempts among Childhood Trauma Survivors.

Research into factors for suicide has revealed relations between trauma exposure and suicidality (e.g., Bridge, Goldstein, & Brent, ; Joiner, Sachs-Ericson, Wingate, Brown, Anestis, & Selby, ) wherein painful and provocative experiences (e.g., nonsuicidal self-injury [NSSI]) are an important link (e.g., Van Orden, Witte, Cukrowicz, Braithwaite, Selby, & Joiner, ; Smith, ). No prior research has assessed the relationship between functions of NSSI and suicidality among childhood trauma survivors. Participants who endorsed childhood trauma exposure (N=121; Mage =18.69, range 18-22) completed measures of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, NSSI, and suicidality. Multiple regressions assessing whether the four functions of NSSI predicted suicide ideation and past attempts after controlling for PTSD symptom severity found that only social negative reinforcement was associated with SI (β=.304, SE=.243, t=2.23, p=.028), while only automatic negative reinforcement was associated with past attempts (β=.470, SE=.066, t=2.25, p=.028). Findings highlight the importance of assessing NSSI functions when assessing suicidality among trauma survivors.

Examining Nock and Prinstein's four-function model with offenders who self-injure.

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is the deliberate bodily harm or disfigurement without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned (e.g., cutting, burning, head banging). Nock and Prinstein (2004) proposed a 4-function model (FFM) of NSSI, in which the functions of NSSI are categorized by two dichotomous factors: (a) positive (i.e., involves the addition of a favorable stimulus) or negative (i.e., involves the removal of an aversive stimulus; and (b) automatic (i.e., intrapersonal) or social (i.e., interpersonal). This study examined the validity of this model with incarcerated populations. In-depth semistructured interviews with 201 incarcerated offenders were analyzed and categorized based on the FFM. Participants' descriptions of functions of NSSI were most commonly categorized as automatic negative reinforcement (25.0%; e.g., coping with negative emotions), followed by automatic positive reinforcement (31.3%; e.g., self-punishment), social positive reinforcement (31.3%; e.g., to communicate with others), and social negative reinforcement (12.5%; e.g., to avoid hurting someone else). While the uniqueness of the correctional environment affects some of the specific functions evident in offenders, FFM can be used to adequately organize the functions of NSSI in offenders, providing a useful tool for explaining this complex behavior. Clinically, NSSI in offenders can be viewed has having the same underlying motivations, although automatic positive reinforcement is more prevalent in offenders and social positive reinforcement is more prevalence in nonoffenders. Given that the motivations underlying nonsuicidal self-injury are similar for offender and nonoffender populations, similar treatment approaches may be effective with both populations. (PsycINFO Database Record

Neural mechanisms of negative reinforcement in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders.

BackgroundPrevious research has found accumulating evidence for atypical reward processing in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), particularly in the context of social rewards. Yet, this line of research has focused largely on positive social reinforcement, while little is known about the processing of negative reinforcement in individuals with ASD.MethodsThe present study examined neural responses to social negative reinforcement (a face displaying negative affect) and non-social negative reinforcement (monetary loss) in children with ASD relative to typically developing children, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).ResultsWe found that children with ASD demonstrated hypoactivation of the right caudate nucleus while anticipating non-social negative reinforcement and hypoactivation of a network of frontostriatal regions (including the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, and putamen) while anticipating social negative reinforcement. In addition, activation of the right caudate nucleus during non-social negative reinforcement was associated with individual differences in social motivation.ConclusionsThese results suggest that atypical responding to negative reinforcement in children with ASD may contribute to social motivational deficits in this population.

ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF SOCIAL AVOIDANCE

Problem behavior maintained by social-negative reinforcement often is evoked by a specific type of social interaction--the presentation of task demands. This study involved assessment and treatment of a more general form of social avoidance in which the establishing operation (EO) for problem behavior consisted of social interaction per se. Four subjects exhibited high rates of problem behavior during the play or demand conditions of a functional analysis (FA). A subsequent FA in which problem behavior produced escape from social interaction confirmed social avoidance for all subjects. A series of interventions aimed at attenuating aversive characteristics of social interaction then was implemented with 3 of the subjects. These interventions included vicarious reinforcement, conditioning of social interaction as a reinforcer, stimulus fading, and differential reinforcement (DRA) plus extinction (EXT). DRA plus EXT was the only condition in which decreases in problem behavior and increases in social interactions were observed reliably.

Variety of Self-Injury: Is the Number of Different Methods of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Related to Personality, Psychopathology, or Functions of Self-Injury?

This study explored the association between number of methods of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) and personality, psychopathology, and functions of NSSI. Two combined undergraduate samples reporting a history of NSSI (n = 149) completed measures of personality, psychopathology, and NSSI. A series of regression analyses indicated that Conscientiousness, Openness, and two functions of NSSI (i.e., Automatic Negative Reinforcement and Social Negative Reinforcement) shared significant relationships with the number of NSSI methods participants engaged in. These findings demonstrate that, after accounting for NSSI frequency, a relationship exists among specific personality factors, NSSI functions, and engagement in additional methods of NSSI.

Functions of maladaptive behavior in intellectual and developmental disabilities: Behavior categories and topographies

Research has shown that different maladaptive behavior categories may be maintained by different contingencies. We examined whether behavior categories or behavior topographies determine functional properties. The Questions about Behavioral Function with its five subscales (Attention, Escape, Nonsocial, Physical, and Tangible) was completed by direct care staff for one target behavior for each of 115 adults with varying degrees of intellectual disabilities. In the first step we examined the functional properties of three broad behavior categories (self-injurious behavior [SIB], stereotypic behavior, and aggressive/destructive behavior). Consistent with previous research stereotyped behaviors and SIB had significantly higher QABF Nonsocial (i.e., automatic positive reinforcement or self-stimulation) subscale scores than aggressive behavior, while none of the other subscales showed differences across the three behavior categories. Contrary to earlier studies, escape (or negative social reinforcement) was an important function not only for aggressive behavior, but also for SIB and stereotypies. A second analysis examined functional properties depending on two factors: the behavior topography (hitting vs. non-hitting behaviors) and their respective behavior category (SIB vs. aggression). SIB topographies had higher ratings than aggressive behavior on the QABF Nonsocial subscale. Of the five QABF subscales, only the subscale Nonsocial differed between categories of maladaptive behavior. Furthermore it was the behavior categories rather than the topographies that determined functional properties.

TOPOGRAPHICAL AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF PRECURSORS TO SEVERE PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

A literature search identified 17 articles reporting data on 34 subjects who engaged in precursors to severe problem behavior, which we examined to identify topographical and functional characteristics. Unintelligible vocalization was the most common precursor to aggression (27%) and property destruction (29%), whereas self- or nondirected movement was the most common precursor to SIB (32%). Unintelligible vocalization and object-directed movement were the most common precursors to behavior maintained by social-positive reinforcement (27% each), and unintelligible vocalization was the most common precursor to behavior maintained by social-negative reinforcement (29%). Only one precursor was reported for behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement.

Practical issues in effective behavioral intervention development.

There is a consensus in the behavioral literature that treatments based on the results of a functional assessment are more effective than treatments that are selected arbitrarily (e.g., Carr & Durand, 1985; Paclawskyj, Kurtz, & O'Connor, 2004). By identifying the functional reinforcers that maintain problem behavior, practitioners can design interventions that are more efficient (i.e., it narrows the list of potential interventions to choose from) and more effective. Linking treatments to functional assessment results has become standard clinical practice and has found its way into the language of federal and state legislation. This has been a positive and robust change in the behavioral intervention process. While the concept of linking treatment to function has logical appeal, practical issues arise when implementing these strategies in applied settings. In many cases, staff and caregivers may not know how to link assessment to treatment or the main components of effective function-based intervention. In other words, some care providers may complete a functional behavioral assessment (as is often required by law), but the assessment not translate into a function-based intervention due to a skill deficit on the part of the practitioner designing the intervention (i.e., they do not know how to select an appropriate treatment based on the results). Furthermore, the implementation of treatment may be affected by the level of training and expertise among direct care staff members and on-site supervisors. In many applied settings, direct care staff often do not receive proper training to effectively implement behavior intervention plans. In some cases, the primary procedure for training a staff member is to provide them with a written description of the procedure (i.e., the behavior plan). These concerns about the adequacy of staff/caregiver can have significant deleterious effects from a clinical standpoint, as improper implementation may result in negative outcomes for, not only the learner, but for staff and caregivers as well. Other practical implementation issues may involve the way treatment effectiveness is evaluated itself in applied settings. A thorough analysis of the maintaining mechanisms of the problem behavior is the cornerstone of the intervention, but uncovering functions alone is not enough to ensure an effective intervention. The real life challenges presented by implementation can be addressed with judicious assessment, sensitive treatment, and systems analysis. In many cases, treatments are evaluated using a wait and see approach, where practitioners tell direct care providers to implement an intervention and hope for a positive outcome. Taking a no is good news approach to intervention is not particularly systematic and likely leads to the propagation of ineffective intervention practices. The current manuscript will briefly review information related to the use of functional assessment procedures and common intervention strategies for different functions of problem behavior. We will then discuss some of the barriers to effective treatment implementation, particularly issues related to staff/parent training and systems issues as they relate to evaluating the effectiveness of treatments Functional Assessment The purpose of a functional assessment is to determine the cause, or the function, of challenging behavior. There are three primary types of functional assessment: indirect models (e.g., interviews, rating scales), descriptive analysis (e.g., ABC data), and functional analysis (e.g., environmental manipulations). These procedures are used to determine the antecedents that trigger maladaptive behavior and the reinforcement contingencies that maintain the behavior. Operant behavior can be categorized as being mediated by social reinforcement or automatic reinforcement. Socially-mediated problem behavior can be divided into social positive and social negative reinforcement. …