Social Impact Categories Research Articles

Social life cycle hotspot analysis of future hydrogen use in the EU

Abstract Purpose The widespread use of hydrogen in the EU aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions may involve complex value chains (e.g. importation from third countries) with potential effects (positive or negative) on the different sectors of society. Achieving sustainable hydrogen deployment must be motivated not only by environmental and economic aspects but also by social responsibility and the search for human well-being. Given this, and the scarcity of studies currently available on prospective social impacts of hydrogen production, the present purpose of this article is to unveil and assess the main social impacts linked to the future hydrogen value chains. Methods The methodological approach adopted in this article encompasses the following steps: (i) analysis of two potential value chains for hydrogen use in EU: an on-site option, where hydrogen is produced and used in the same European country, and an off-site option, where hydrogen is produced in a European country different from its usage involving more unit processes, in terms of storage and transport activities, and working time to deliver the same quantity of hydrogen. This framework will include (i) scenario analysis and a forward-looking perspective taking into account the critical raw materials employed across the entire value chain, (ii) identification of a list of relevant social impact categories and indicators through a systematic procedure, (iii) social hotspot analysis using Product Social Impact Life Cycle Assessment (PSILCA) to assess the selected representative value chains, and (iv) conducting scenario analysis and subsequently interpreting of results. Results and discussion The off-site value chain shows a relatively worse social performance (6 to 72 times) than the on-site value chain across most selected indicators due to the more complex value chain. Although the identification of social hotspots depends on the specific social indicator under evaluation, the power source components (wind and solar PV) manufacturing processes and the relatively increased complexity of the off-site option highly conditioned the social performance of the hydrogen value chains in most of the indicators considered. A scenario analysis was carried out comparing both value chains with two additional locations for hydrogen production: Northern Africa and Western Asia. The findings indicate that the on-site value chain presents the lowest impact scores. For the off-site option, the production of hydrogen in a European country is the most preferable scenario in terms of the social indicators evaluated. Conclusions According to findings, producing hydrogen in a different location than where it is consumed increases the social impacts of its deployment. Measures at mid and long term should be considered for improving the social impact of hydrogen deployment in Europe. This includes increasing reuse and recycling, responsibly sourcing raw materials, and creating regulatory frameworks ensuring safe working conditions across global value chains. Furthermore, this article highlights the crucial role of the S-LCA methodology in evaluating social aspects as a support for targeted policy interventions, and the need to adapt this to the specific case study. At the same time, it acknowledges that other relevant social aspects that can influence the social sustainability of the hydrogen technology are not captured with this methodology (in particular social acceptance, affordability and energy security). Improvements in selecting indicators and refined geographical and temporal representations of the value chains to better represent hydrogen technologies and future size market are research gaps filled in the present scientific work.

Social dimension of the circular economy: Impact categories through fuzzy Delphi method

AbstractThe scholarly literature highlights the relevance of the social dimension of the circular economy (CE); yet the empirical analysis of this issue has been overlooked. This work sheds light empirically on this gap with a fuzzy Delphi study carried out in a region with strong institutional support for this paradigm. Through the consensus of 25 experts, a set of social impact categories of the CE was scrutinized. The results contribute to widening the current quantitative vision on the employment generated by CE, through the exploration of its qualitative aspects. According to our findings, technological innovation in high‐skilled employment appears to be crucial. Likewise, the results anticipate impacts derived from collaboration among stakeholders in a circular context still at an incipient stage. The expert panel also highlights the relevance of socio‐cultural and behavioral changes. Implications for public policy makers and other stakeholders are also analyzed, namely the development of a monitoring framework of the social dimension of the CE.

Developing a new social impact assessment model for deep open-pit mines

Various open-pit mines, particularly porphyry copper mines, are anticipated to reach depths of more than 1000 m, and short knowledge of social impacts at such depths is a significant challenge for the mining industry's future. In the present study, 37 social impact factors of deep open-pit mines are recognized as the first step for a Social Impact Assessment procedure. As a 37 × 37 matrix for weighting the importance level of each factor will be complicated and unreliable, these factors are classified into 10 categories and weighted using the Z-Fuzzy Delphi AHP technique. 26 experts worldwide were recognized as qualified for the study, among which 14 questionnaires were returned. The Cronbach coefficient was calculated to check the level of uniformity of the questionnaires, and the value was determined to be 0.925 for I (Importance) and 0.911 for R (reliability), which shows a high level of uniformity in the expert's predictions. By applying Z-numbers, and using fuzzy Delphi mathematics, the uncertainty of the experts' opinions was highly reduced. The results showed that the most critical social impact categories in deep open-pit mines are workplace safety (13.8%), employment (10.9%), and revenue generation (10.7%). Next, the social impact factor's score was determined using the scenarios described in this study. Finally, the methodology was applied to the Sungun Copper Mine (SCM) in the northwest of Iran for verification. The Social Sustainability Score (Ss) for the SCM was determined to be 6.364, which shows a medium level of sustainability. Finally, the proposed methodology can be used to determine the social responsibility level of any metal mining project.

Social Life Cycle Analysis of Textile Industry Impacts for Greater Social Sustainability of Global Supply Chains

Solutions will be effective if they are aligned with the problems that they are trying to solve. This paper studied the most relevant social impacts of the textile industry and how appropriately textile companies manage these social impacts, in order to achieve greater social sustainability in global supply chains. Therefore, we attempted to determine whether companies belonging to the textile product lifecycle identify and manage social impacts in keeping with the most relevant social hotspots in the supply chain of the textile industry. A consistency analysis was conducted based on the management of social indicators at the company level (identified through the analysis of contents of their sustainability reporting) connected with social impact categories defined in the Guidelines for Social Life Cycle Assessment of products provided by the United Nations Environment Programme, and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, and on the technical results obtained by the textile sector through the Social Hotspots Database. The results showed a predominant inconsistency between the main social hotspots of the textile industry showed in the footprint analysis and the social indicators specifically reported by the sector. This paper contributes to the literature about what sustainability management implies along global supply chains, emphasizing the need to advance in a consistent and science-based integration of social hotspots at the sectoral level and social management practices at the company level. In addition, the study could be relevant for companies belonging to complex and global supply chains, since it contributes towards enhancing the knowledge of science-based methodologies, as social life cycle assessments, for identifying, managing, and reporting their social hotspots.

Including the social in the circular: A mapping of the consequences of a circular economy transition in the city of Umeå, Sweden

The circular economy (CE) model, where resources are kept "in the loop" for as long as possible through a series of reusing, remanufacturing, recycling, and recovery strategies, has been acclaimed for reducing the environmental impacts of our current economic model substantially and has therefore been supported by a wide range of policymakers as one solution to tackling climate change. However, how circular transitions in cities impact people has been rarely researched, and even less attention has been paid to the negative consequences of CE transitions.This paper presents the findings from a social impact assessment conducted in the city of Umeå, Sweden. We identified several negative impacts of a CE transition across seven social impact categories and explored three areas in depth with stakeholders in the city: employment, access to services and participation. We found that the negative impacts of the CE are perceived to be limited and that the CE interventions are mainly viewed as a win-win-win outcome, i.e., a win for the environment, the economy and people. This raises questions about the level to which societal consequences have been considered and whether all relevant stakeholders, in particular civil society, have participated in the design of the city's CE strategy. Our findings can inform other cities about possible negative consequences of CE transitions and provide insights into how to incorporate different stakeholders in the CE transition process to ensure that no one is left behind.

An SLCA method based framework of large-scale transportation infrastructure in China

Large-scale infrastructure has complex social impacts because it involves large investments, long life cycle, and extensive stakeholders. However, studies on social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) of large-scale infrastructure are still lacking. Based on the extant S-LCA literature and characteristics of large-scale infrastructure, this study proposes an S-LCA framework for large-scale transportation infrastructure and evaluates the following five social impact categories: economy, welfare, participation, safety, and justice. The framework determines categories of stakeholders, such as workers, users, the public, value chain participants, and local communities. Additionally, the study puts forward the subcategories, inventory indicators, and characterization models of each stakeholder; it constructs a weighting system for stakeholders and subcategories and then aggregates and compares different impact categories. The proposed framework was applied to evaluate the life cycle social impacts of the Fengtai High-speed Railway Station reconstruction project in Beijing. Results confirmed the feasibility and practicability of the framework. The proposed S-LCA framework is theoretically valuable for quantifying the complex and long-term social impacts of large-scale infrastructure and has practical value for improving the social performance and decision-making effectiveness of infrastructure project investment.

A stakeholders’ participatory approach to multi-criteria assessment of sustainable aviation fuels production pathways

Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) provide a viable option to decarbonise global aviation. Unlike conventional jet-fuel, SAFs can be produced in several production pathways making their selection a complex multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) problem with conflicting objectives. In this paper, we propose a multicriteria based framework for evaluating SAF production pathways, which is a sequential decision-making process with feedback adjustment mechanisms. Given the early stage of SAF technologies' development and the scarcity of data on such technologies, in this research, we involved a variety of aviation industry stakeholders to assist with data and preference gathering. Our MCDM framework is designed to be generic to provide flexibilities to potential users in choosing the appropriate implementation decisions for the relevant stakeholders. The strength of the proposed framework lays in its flexibility to accommodate various stakeholders' subjective judgements, choice of ranking method, and robustness of results. We used our MCDM framework within a stakeholders’ participatory approach to rank order 11 SAF production pathways against 24 criteria grouped under social, environmental, economic, and technical impact categories. Our analysis revealed that the environmental and the economic impact categories are the most important ones followed by the technical and the social criteria; the gasification/Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) based production processes are preferred over fermentation and oil-based ones; and waste gases are the preferred feedstock along with wood-residue. These findings provide decision-makers with guidelines on the selection of SAF production pathways.

Socio-economic Life Cycle Assessment of Silangit Airport in Lake Toba Area

The objective of this study is to identify social implications of Silangit Airport of Lake Toba Area using Social Life Cycle Assessment methodological framework. The assessment involves relevant stakeholders, such as employees, local community members, government, and consumers. The assessment criteria are adopted from Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry/ United Society of Environmental Programme Code of Practice. Each criterion was weighted by employing an expert survey. Stakeholders’ perspectives were gauged by measuring gaps between expectation and perception, which are gauged using seven-point Likert Scale. Scoring process was conducted by multiplying the weighting and gauging to get result interpretation. Twenty-three social criteria were developed into five social impact categories; human rights, working condition, cultural heritage, social-economic repercussion, and governance. The results of the stakeholders’ survey in each category reveal that stakeholders’ expectation on socio-economic criteria is generally met by the actual practice of Silangit Airport. However, small negative gaps are seen in the criteria safe and healthy living condition, transparency on social/environmental issues and horizontal conflicts are at minimum.

An integrated social life cycle assessment of freight transport systems

The climate change concerns have generated the need to develop strategies to reduce the oil dependency in transport sector. Many of these strategies have not achieved the proposed objectives by the scant emphasis on social and socio-economic aspects of the life cycle of the transport system components. Therefore, an approach for the integrated social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) of freight transport services is proposed in this paper. The proposed S-LCA approach was developed based on the UNEP/SETAC guidelines (2009). Twenty-six social impact subcategories were selected, and a systemic definition of the transport system boundaries was introduced. A multilevel inventory analysis method was proposed, including a list of generic and specific indicators for each social impact subcategory, based on secondary and primary sources. For the impact assessment phase, a multilevel valuation scale method was applied to obtain social performance indexes (SPI) of the companies in the supply chain for five social impact categories and five stakeholders. In addition, bearing in mind the stakeholders’ perceptions, an aggregated SPI of the system in a scale of 1 to 5 was calculated for the case study in a freight company in Malaysia. The most relevant impact categories for the interviewed stakeholders were workers’ and human rights. Results exposed that freedom of association, working hours, health and safety, and equal opportunities were the most critical issues in the supply chain. Technological development, corruption, and transparency in social and environmental issues were other critical aspects. The impact assessment method did not analyze the social impacts generated due to the social conducts of companies, but provided information about the priorities that should be considered to improve the supply chain social performance. The aggregation of results in SPI made difficult to identify the aspects with the best or worst performance, being more useful for comparison purposes or for giving a quick landscape of the analyzed service. This approach contributes in the purpose of analyzing services, with a broader view, by integrating different components in the supply chain. The methods for inventory analysis and impact assessment allow including upstream activities, which can be applied in different sectors. The multilevel valuation scale method allows weighting different inventory analyses results and including stakeholders’ perceptions, reducing biases from some information sources and in the result characterization. However, improvement is needed in the design of weighting factors of activities for reducing uncertainties in the performance indexes.

Collaborating constructively for sustainable biotechnology

Tackling the pressing sustainability needs of society will require the development and application of new technologies. Biotechnology, emboldened by recent advances in synthetic biology, offers to generate sustainable biologically-based routes to chemicals and materials as alternatives to fossil-derived incumbents. Yet, the sustainability potential of biotechnology is not without trade-offs. Here, we probe this capacity for sustainability for the case of bio-based nylon using both deliberative and analytical approaches within a framework of Constructive Sustainability Assessment. We highlight the potential for life cycle CO2 and N2O savings with bio-based processes, but report mixed results in other environmental and social impact categories. Importantly, we demonstrate how this knowledge can be generated collaboratively and constructively within companies at an early stage to anticipate consequences and to inform the modification of designs and applications. Application of the approach demonstrated here provides an avenue for technological actors to better understand and become responsive to the sustainability implications of their products, systems and actions.

Analysis of Perceived Social Impacts of Existing Products Designed for the Developing World, With Implications for New Product Development

Abstract Engineered products often have more social impacts than are realized. A product review was conducted to bring this to light. In this paper, we show the extent to which different social impacts in 11 impact categories are co-present in 150 products and how this can help engineers and others during the product development process. Specifically, we show how social impact categories not previously considered can be identified. The product review resulted in 13,200 data points that were divided into two data sets, one with 8800 data points from which a social impact probability table was created. The remaining data points were then used to validate the table. All data points were then combined to create a final social impact probability table. This table provides insight for how various social impact categories correlate and can assist engineers in expanding their views to include additional social impact objectives and thus achieve a design with broader social impact or a design with minimized unwanted negative social impact. A simple method for predicting social impact is also created in order to assist engineers when developing products with social impacts in mind.

A Method for Creating Product Social Impact Models of Engineered Products

AbstractAll products impact the lives of their users, this is called social impact. Some social impacts are commonly recognized by the engineering community, such as impacts to a user’s health and safety, while other social impacts can be more difficult to recognize, such as impacts on families and gender roles. When engineers make design decisions, without considering social impacts, they can unknowingly cause negative social impacts. Even harming the user and/or society. Despite its challenges, measuring a program’s or policy’s social impact is a common practice in the field of social sciences. These measurements are made using social impact indicators, which are simply the things observed to verify that true progress is being made. While there are clear benefits to predicting the social impact of an engineered product, it is unclear how engineers should select indicators and build predictive social impact models that are functions of engineering parameters and decisions. This paper introduces a method for selecting social impact indicators and creating predictive social impact models that can help engineers predict and improve the social impact of their products. As a first step in the method, an engineer identifies the product’s users, objectives, and requirements. Then, the social impact categories that are related to the product are determined. From each of these categories, the engineer selects several social impact indicators. Finally, models are created for each indicator to predict how a product’s parameters will change these indicators. The impact categories and indicators can be translated into product requirements and performance measures that can be used in product development processes. This method is used to predict the social impact of the proposed, expanded U.S. Mexico border wall.

A critical view on social performance assessment at company level: social life cycle analysis of an algae case

Social indicators are not easy to be quantitatively analyzed, although at the local scale, the social impacts might be relevant and important. Using the existing approaches for both quantitative and semi-qualitative measurements, this study aims to assess the social impacts of a company working on algae production systems in Belgium through social life cycle analysis (SLCA). By highlighting the opportunities and challenges on the way of applying the existing SLCA approaches at company level, the objective of this study is to contribute to the development of a suitable and clear SLCA approach when a company is considered as the unit of analysis. Based on the list of potential social impact categories suggested by the United Nations Environment Program/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (UNEP/SETAC) guidelines (2009) for SLCA, three stakeholder groups (workers, consumers, and local community) and three subcategories associated with each stakeholder group were identified as the most relevant for carbon capture and utilization technologies. Company and sector level data were collected using existing documents and reports, and the data were analyzed and scored using a combined quantitative and semi-quantitative approach to develop a social assessment model for the case study. The company appears to perform well for all the evaluated social indicators except the one related to the subcategory “equal opportunity/discrimination for workers” for which the share of women employed is lower compared with the sector-level data. The results of our assessment were further discussed regarding the challenges and limitations of performing SLCA at the company level. Based on our experience, the validity of the outcomes is significantly influenced by the data availability, the generality of the indicators introduced within the UNEP/SETAC guidelines, and the subjectivity in data collection for the semi-quantitative assessment among others. By highlighting the difficulties and challenges of applying the SLCA at the company level, our study provides a starting point for improving the quantitative assessment and monitoring social implications at the company level within a regional foreground in Europe.

Can S-LCA methodology support responsible sourcing of raw materials in EU policy context?

Access, affordability and sustainability of raw material supply chains are crucial to the sustainable development of the European Union (EU) for both society and economy. The study investigates whether and how the social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) methodology can support responsible sourcing of raw materials in Europe. The potential of social indicators already available in an S-LCA database is tested for the development of new metrics to monitor social risks in raw material industries at EU policy level. The Product Social Impact Life Cycle Assessment (PSILCA) database was identified as a data and indicators source to assess social risks in raw material industries in EU-28 and extra-EU countries. Six raw material country sectors in the scope of the European policy on raw materials were identified and aggregated among those available in PSILCA. The selection of indicators for the assessment was based on the RACER (Relevance, Acceptance, Credibility, Ease, Robustness) analysis, leading to the proposal of 9 social impact categories. An S-LCA of the selected raw material industries was, thus, performed for the EU-28 region, followed by a contribution analysis to detect direct and indirect impacts and investigate related supply chains. Finally, the social performance of raw material sectors in EU-28 was compared with that of six extra-EU countries. Considering the overall social risks in raw material industries, “Corruption”, “Fair salary”, “Health and safety” and “Freedom of association and collective bargaining” emerged as the most significant categories both in EU and extra-EU. EU-28 shows an above-average performance where the only exception is represented by the mining and quarrying sector. An investigation of the most contributing processes to social impact categories for EU-28 led to the identification of important risks originating in the supply chain and in extra-EU areas. Therefore, the S-LCA methodology confirmed the potential of a life cycle perspective to detect burdens shifting and trade-offs. However, only a limited view on the sectoral social performance could be obtained from the research due to a lack of social data. The S-LCA methodology and indicators appear appropriate to perform an initial social sustainability screening, thus enabling the identification of hotspots in raw material supply chains and the prioritization of areas of action in EU policies. Further methodological developments in the S-LCA field are necessary to make the approach proposed in the paper fully adequate to support EU policies on raw materials.

Transitioning towards the bio‐economy: Assessing the social dimension through a stakeholder lens

AbstractInternational institutions are calling for a transition towards more sustainable systems of production and consumption. In this transition, sustainable innovations are expected to play an ever‐increasing role. In particular, the production of innovative bio‐based products—products wholly or partly derived from biological materials or from innovative production processes and/or innovative biomass such as food waste or forest residuals—will be part of this process. However, the sustainability of such products must be assured along their entire life cycle and across the three dimensions mentioned above. Against this background, our study aimed at identifying a social impact framework tailored to bio‐based products. It employed a two‐step methodological framework encompassing (a) identification of the relevant social impact categories, subcategories, and indicators and (b) validation of these factors, according to participatory stakeholder involvement. The validation exercise enabled us to consider a restricted number of social indicators so as to reduce the amount of data needed for assessing and decreasing related costs.

Assessing the social performance of municipal solid waste management systems in developing countries: Proposal of indicators and a case study

This article analyses the social performance of municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems in developing countries. For this purpose, a set of social impact categories, indicators and metrics capable of assessing the socio-economic and labour conditions of the different stakeholders involved in the life cycle of a MSW management system is proposed. Specifically, 12 social impact categories and 22 indicators with their corresponding metrics have been suggested. The application of the proposed indicators is illustrated by a case study in the districts of João Pessoa (Brazil), where selective MSW collection has been implemented with the collaboration of previous informal waste pickers, who have been reorganised into associations or cooperatives of collectors of recyclable materials (formal sector). The results suggest that despite the improvements made in the last decade in the current MSW management system of João Pessoa, there is still plenty of room for improvement. The social impact category with better performance is related to a “value chain actors relationship”, while “equal opportunities/discrimination” and “working benefits” show a high improvement potential.

Enriching the results of screening social life cycle assessment using content analysis: a case study of sugarcane in Brazil

Purpose Screening social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) can be applied to identify the social hotspots associated with a production activity or supply chain. The objective of this paper is to explore how the quality of the results of a screening S-LCA can be improved, illustrated by a case study of sugarcane production in Brazil, an activity which has been criticized for its records on social sustainability due to issues such as poor working conditions for field workers and treatment of migrant workers. Methods Cradle-to-gate production of sugarcane in Brazil has been modeled using input-output analysis. The associated social impacts have been modeled using the framework of the Social Hotspots Database (SHDB), which is one of the first databases providing information on social risks along supply chains. The results from the SHDB were complemented with results from a systematic analysis of relevant literature. Content analysis was applied to 38 publications in English relevant to the social impacts of sugarcane production in Brazil, including peer-reviewed articles, “gray literature,” non-governmental organization reports, and conference presentations. Qualitative data analysis software NVivo 8 was used to facilitate the analysis of the publications. A deductive category system was established based on the subcategories recommended in the UNEP/SETAC social life cycle assessment guidelines. Social impacts were further aggregated and analyzed by social themes and impact categories. Results and discussion The social impacts of the sugarcane life cycle in Brazil arise almost exclusively within the Brazilian sugarcane sector itself. Fifteen social themes are identified as hotspots in the SHDB, and nine of them are also identified by content analysis. Health and safety and labor rights and decent work are the impact categories with the highest risks. Besides negative impacts, content analysis is capable of identifying several positive impacts related to sugarcane production. Due to the use of aggregated country-level data, social impacts of manual and mechanical harvesting of sugarcane cannot be differentiated in SHDB; however, this can be achieved by content analysis. Conclusions SHDB is effective for identifying social impacts at the country level, but the data are inevitably aggregated and only show averages across different technologies and geographical areas; therefore, the database is of limited value in distinguishing between alternative operations and locations. Content analysis can facilitate foreground data collection by differentiating operations and identifying both negative and positive impacts at the level of individual activities. We recommend that S-LCA databases can be integrated with results of content analysis to improve the richness—representativity and specificity—of results from a screening S-LCA, to differentiate between alternative production routes and processes.

Social Life Cycle Approach as a Tool for Promoting the Market Uptake of Bio-Based Products from a Consumer Perspective

The sustainability of bio-based products, especially when compared with fossil based products, must be assured. The life cycle approach has proven to be a promising way to analyze the social, economic and environmental impacts of bio-based products along the whole value chain. Until now, however, the social aspects have been under-investigated in comparison to environmental and economic aspects. In this context, the present paper aims to identify the main social impact categories and indicators that should be included in a social sustainability assessment of bio-based products, with a focus on the consumers’ category. To identify which social categories and indicators are most relevant, we carry out a literature review on existing social life cycle studies; this is followed by a focus group with industrial experts and academics. Afterwards, we conduct semi-structured interviews with some consumer representatives to understand which social indicators pertaining to consumers are perceived as relevant. Our findings highlight the necessity for the development and dissemination of improved frameworks capable of exploiting the consumers’ role in the ongoing process of market uptake of bio-based products. More specifically, this need regards the effective inclusion of some social indicators (i.e., end users’ health and safety, feedback mechanisms, transparency, and end-of-life responsibility) in the social life cycle assessment scheme for bio-based products. This would allow consumers, where properly communicated, to make more informed and aware purchasing choices, therefore having a flywheel effect on the market diffusion of a bio-based product.

Measuring the social impact: An example of Slawek Foundation

The article is aimed at presenting the most commonly used existing methods of measuring the social impact generated by a social enterprise using an example, a case study of Slawek Foundation. The Foundation serves the prisoners, ex-prisoners and their families with a goal of bringing them back to the society, so that they were able to return to life and live under the rule of law. The article is composed of a brief description of social value, social impact categories and the most commonly used methods of measuring the social value: the logic model (theory of change) and SROI, and next it shows a case study use of those methods for Slawek Foundation.

The social footprint of permanent magnet production based on rare earth elements – a social life cycle assessment scenario

UN-Habitat stated in 2012 that “investment in renewable energies could generate more employment and income for urban households [1]” and for UN-Habitat renewable energies are a central element of the environmental sustainability of urban areas [2]. Renewable energy technologies are seen by the UN as instruments to support the urban transformation process [1]. However, renewable energy technologies such as direct-drive wind turbines based on permanent magnets need non-renewable resources such as rare earth minerals [3-5]. We therefore analyse rare earth production in Australia, Malaysia (Mount Weld), USA (Mountain Pass), and China (Bayan Obo). The Mount Weld process chain takes place in three countries (Australia, Malaysia, China). The Mountain Pass process takes place in the USA and China. All Bayan Obo processes take place in China. In our social life cycle assessment (sLCA), we use the five major social impact categories (labour rights & decent work, health & safety, human rights, governance, community & infrastructure) [6, 7] suggested by UNEP/SETAC [8] and assign to them 21 social indicators of the 2012 Social Hotspots Database [6] to cover every social theme in our sLCA.Using the sLCA model, we estimate the social footprint function for every production step of the three rare earth production chains. Based on the presented social footprint functions, the total social footprint of the three rare earth production sites is estimated for the year 2015 based on the development of the Human Development Index (HDI). For the Mountain Pass process, our analysis reveals very low social risks for the process parts taking place in the United States and significantly higher social risks in China. The Australian processes of Mount Weld cause also a very small social footprint, whereas the processes in Malaysia and China cause a significantly higher social footprint. The Bayan Obo processes have a considerably higher social footprint than the other two process chains.