Social Gender Inequality Research Articles

The Role of Gender in Turkish Women’s Pregnancy Experiences

Background: Apart from the biological changes women experience throughout pregnancy, their exposure to a gender discrimination stemming from cultural values adopted by the society in which they live can make it difficult for them to adapt to pregnancy and thus lead to negative pregnancy experiences. Aim: This research was conducted using a cross-sectional and relation-seeking approach to evaluate the effects of social gender inequality on pregnancy experiences. Methods: Data for this cross-sectional and relation-seeking study were gathered between 25 November 2019 and 25 January 2020 using face-to face interviews the researcher conducted with childbearing women who visited the outpatient clinic and non-stress test units of a hospital for the pregnancy follow-up. Results:: When using the Pregnancy Experiences Scale to assess childbearing women, higher scores indicated more positive emotions than negative emotions. Independent variables that affect the scores on the Pregnancy Experiences Scale include a willingness to be pregnant, the baby's sex, the woman’s income status, gestational week and the Perception of Gender Scale (p<0.005). A positive but weakly significant relationship was found among the total score on the Perception of Gender Scale, the total score on the Pregnancy Experiences Scale and the average scores of positive emotions intensity and frequency in all sub-dimensions (p<0.005). Conclusion: Based on the data, we conclude that women’s pregnancy experiences are generally positive, and that social gender inequality is a significant determinant affecting pregnancy experiences.

Social gender inequality and the gender gap in the classroom: evidence from Southern and Eastern Africa

ABSTRACT The gender gap in education is not limited to the subject of mathematics or only to be found in high-income countries, and its repercussions can have generational consequences. Previous literature has sought to explain why the gender gap persists in most high- and middle-income countries vis-à-vis social gender inequality without drawing from similarly comprehensive data from the African context with its unique gender gap landscape. This paper examines the correlation between more gender-equal countries and the gender gap in student test scores for reading, mathematics, and HIV-AIDS awareness in southern and eastern Africa. We use ordinary least squares and quantile regression to analyse student information from the SACMEQ III dataset in comparison with measurements of social gender inequality such as the Gender Inequality Index and the Global Gender Gap Index. As such, this analysis draws on data from roughly 60,000 African students and includes test scores from reading comprehension and HIV-AIDS awareness, a unique subject that is critical for health, wealth and wellbeing on the continent. Our study finds that in each subject at every quantile, the gender gap displays a robust inverse relationship with more gender-equal countries specifically demonstrating higher educational performance among girls. With youthful populations and burgeoning economies, these countries in Africa have much to gain from addressing the gender gap in education. These findings encourage policymakers to consider how the social condition of gender-equality might influence the academic performance of students, especially for girls.

Gender inequality is associated with gender differences and women participation in physical activity.

Living standards determine population's physical activity (PA); however, more women are systemically insufficiently active, suggesting social gender inequality factors. Thus, we assessed the association between gender inequality, PA differences between genders, and total PA. We used three independent cross-sectional databases at country-level: PA prevalence (i.e., Active Lifestyle) from the World Health Organization with 1.9 million individuals from 168 countries; daily steps (smartphone registers) of 693 806 people from 46 countries and sport participation in the 2016 Summer Olympics with 11 191 athletes. Gender Inequality Index was used to evaluate aspects surrounding gender equality controlling for overall economic and health status. Higher gender inequality was associated with gender differences in PA (Active Lifestyle, 0.402, P<0.001; Steps, 0.542, P<0.001; Olympic participation, 0.346, P=0.001). Likewise, lower gender inequality was associated with increased women activity (Active Lifestyle, -0.838, P<0.001; Steps, -0.81, P<0.001; Olympic participation, -0.577, P<0.001), and men activity (Active Lifestyle, -0.453, P<0.001; Steps, -0.461, P=0.002). Lower women PA levels could be influenced by gender inequality. Public health policies aimed to improve women living conditions which may promote their participation in PA and sport.

Internet Use and Entrepreneurship: Narrowing the Gender Gap

The study develops and validates a research model examining the impact of the use of internet on women’s entrepreneurship. While women are in disadvantaged positions in entrepreneurial arena, we suggest the use of internet could reduce such disadvantages. In addition, we propose two possible mechanisms, providing resources and changing social values, of internet use on women’s entrepreneurship. The empirical analyses based on data from China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) support the positive effect of internet use on facilitating women’s entrepreneurship, but mainly through providing knowledge and resources, rather than through reducing social gender inequality.

Exposing Gender Inequalities: Impacts of Covid-19 on Aotearoa ǀ New Zealand Employment

This article outlines how the Covid-19 pandemic exacerbates economic and social gender inequalities in Aotearoa ǀ New Zealand. While this crisis highlights the central part played by women in the economy, the gender impacts of the pandemic are visible in connection to a decrease in job security and financial safety for female workers; to a rise in the duplication of paid and unpaid work; to an increase violence in and outside of homes; a heightened risk exposure to the virus and worse health outcomes. Not all women are equally positioned in this crisis, women of Māori and Pacific descent are disproportionately feeling the effects of the pandemic.&#x0D; The two-prong, government’s recovery plan, which only partially ensures a fair and equal economic rebuild, is critically assessed. While the economic response fails to take a systematic gender approach, scope for challenging traditional gender assumptions is met head-on in relation to policy on violence against women. The article considers flexible working options and focuses on options for reframing employment law in a post-pandemic environment with a view to achieve and deliver equality between men and women through an intersectional lens.

Indexing gender, culture, and cognition

In their inaugural Editorial for the Journal of Language and Discrimination, van der Bom, Mills and Peterson observed that language plays a key role in discriminatory acts. I quote their words: ‘Discrimination is manifest (and can be traced and challenged) discursively; ideological stances and beliefs are produced, reproduced and legitimised through discourse, meaning that language is intertwined with people’s beliefs and ideologies’ (2017:3). This special issue targets the role of gendered language structures in sustaining gender ideologies that reinforce sexism. Contributions in the issue address the following questions: What is the relationship between grammatical and lexical gender, and the construction of social gender? Do gendered terms generate inferences about the social gender order and mediate speakers’ thinking of the social world? Can we explore conceptualisations of gender at the level of discourse? What is the cognitive effect of the generic use of the masculine gender, and what are the cognitive mechanisms underlying gender inequality? The debate on the role of language in producing and stabilising the social gender order can be traced to the early work of feminist linguists in the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s. Lakoff (1975) treated language as a medium that reflects women’s subordination and men’s domination at the social level, and Spender (1980) focused on the role of language in constructing and reproducing a man-made worldview that silences female difference. Early feminist linguistic work (e.g. Baron 1986; Bodine 1975; Eakins and Eakins 1978; Graham 1975; Miller and Swift 1976; Schulz 1975) examined gendered forms, for which the semantic distinction of sex is grammaticised or lexically specified, and their role in encoding and reproducing social gender inequality. However, questions about structural features of language were downplayed or neglected in the following years due to the performativity turn in gender studies (see Motschenbacher 2016 for a critical approach). The latest developments in language and gender research have criticised the binary and static view of gender, foregrounded variation within the categories of ‘women’ and ‘men’, and showed that language does not relate to gender in a straightforward way (general overviews of research on language and gender are found in Bucholtz 2014 and Cameron 2005). In recent years there has been revived interest in the role of gendered language structures in constructing and challenging the binary gender order and heteronormativity (see, e.g., Abbou and Baider 2016; Bing and Bergvall 1996; Hellinger and Busmann 2001–2002–2003; Hellinger and Motschenbacher 2015; Livia and Hall 1997; Motschenbacher 2010). Researchers claiming that language constructs social gender and maintains gender inequality often tacitly presuppose or imply that language has a cognitive role, namely, that language mediates the way in which speakers interpret experience. However, cognition is rarely addressed explicitly in language and gender research. The past few years have seen new data on the relation between grammatical and lexical gender, and cognition from studies in psychology (Garnham et al. 2016), typology (Aikhenvald 2016) and talk-in-interaction (Alvanoudi 2014). Despite a number of in-depth works on the relation between gendered language structures and social gender, there has been no attempt to offer a systematic account of the cognitive aspects of this relation. This special issue is intended to partly fill this gap by exploring the complex interface between indexing gender, culture and cognition across different languages, namely Croatian, English, Greek and Italian. The sections ‘Indexing gender’, ‘Indexing gender and culture’ and ‘Indexing gender and cognition’ outline some theoretical preliminaries for the contributions included in this special

A Qualitative and Quantitative Examination of Gender Role Attitudes of Residencies and their Exposure to Gender Discrimination

Background: Gendered attitudes have been observed in medicine over the last 50 years, and the effects of social gender inequality can be seen in professional practices from various perspectives. We aimed to examine the attitudes of residency physicians towards their gender roles, and also to examine their exposure to gender discrimination while performing tasks in their daily work-life. Methods: This study was a cross-sectional type phenomenological research using a mixed method design. It was designed using the sequential strategy within the explanatory pattern. In the quantitative part of the study, 81.3% of the residency students were accessed, and a survey consisting of 78 items was performed using face-to-face interviews. In the qualitative part, personal interviews were performed with 11 residency students who were selected using the purposeful sampling method. Results: According to studies in medicine, the areas of specialty and the tasks to be performed in daily work-life were classified based on gender. Female physicians were exposed to gender inequality and discriminative attitudes, especially in surgical departments. Conclusion: Gender roles attributed to women negatively affect their professional and academic lives. Keywords: GENDER, WOMEN’S HEALTH, RESIDENCY PHYSICIANS, MIXED METHOD

Gender differences in disability among older adults in the context of social gender and income inequalities: 2013 Brazilian Health Survey.

To estimate the magnitude of gender differences in disability among adults aged 60 and older and to evaluate whether they can be associated with social gender inequality and socioeconomic contextual factors at the level of Brazilian federative units. This is a multilevel study that used data from 23,575 older adults of 27 federative units who participated in the 2013 Brazilian Health Survey. The activity limitation index was developed from the item response theory, using activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living variables. The association of individual and contextual variables with disability was estimated by assessing the magnitude of differences between genders, using cross-level interaction effects in multilevel generalized linear models, including only the variables that were statistically significant in the final model. The prevalence of disability was higher among women (37.6%) than among men (26.5%), totaling 32.7% of the older adults. In the adjusted multilevel analysis, disability was influenced by income inequality (γgini = 0.022, p < 0.001) among federative units. In addition, gender differences in disability were associated with social gender inequalities (γmgiiXsex = 0.020, p = 0.004). Women had higher disability disadvantages compared to men, and those differences were associated with social gender inequalities among the Brazilian federative units influenced by income inequality.

KEMAL BİLBAŞAR'IN CEMO VE MEMO ROMANLARINDA TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYET YANSIMALARI

Kemal Bilbasar, who is one of the social realist writers of Turkish literature, entered the world of literature with the story genre. In 1941, he produced his first novel titled Etrafimizdaki Duvar; he wrote a total of twelve novels including ten books and two feuilletons. Although he touched personal subjects in his first two novels, he gravitated towards social issues in his later novels. His 1966 novel Cemo brought Bilbasar to fame and enabled him to be awarded with the Turkish Language Association's Novel Prize. Following the positive reception of Cemo, he wrote a novel titled Memo in 1969, which is regarded as the continuation of Cemo. These two novels describe the state of Eastern Anatolia in the foundation years of the Republic based on historical facts. The state of the period and geography in question pre-land reform, the tyranny of squirearchy and peasantry are told in these novels within the atmosphere of the love affair between Cemo-Memo-Senem. While the writer describes the social, political and cultural atmosphere of Eastern Anatolia at the aforementioned period through a representation of Tunceli by placing the characters Cemo, Memo and Senem at the forefront, he directly reflects the perspectives of the local residents on women. On the other hand, he adopts a critical stance towards the role of women in social gender inequality. In the present study, the role of women in the novels Cemo and Memo will be evaluated with an emphasis on social gender inequality and the attitude of Bilbasar towards this issue will be discussed.

Activity limitation in elderly people in the European context of gender inequality: a multilevel approach.

The objective of the present study was to examine the magnitude of gender differences in activity limitations among the elderly, and the effect of the health and social individual factors and the context of social gender inequality in Europe. Cross-sectional design was performed. The study population included residents aged 60 years or over from 17 countries that participated in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe conducted in 2010-13 (n = 49,685). Gender differences in activity limitation in each country was estimated. For multilevel analysis adjusted linear mixed effect models were used, where the intercept and 'sex' were considered random effects, with the 95% confidence intervals. The activity limitation index was created from a two parameter logistic combined models of item response theory. The average activity limitation index was significantly higher in women, (g10 = b1j = 0.36, p < 0.001), and was then controlled by individual and contextual factors, while the extent of these differences varied among countries. The European countries with the greatest gender differences in activity limitations were those with the greatest social gender inequalities, with women presenting a significant disadvantage.

Women's Labour In Turkey: A Comparasıon Wıth Selected Oecd Countrıes 49

Gender inequality that exists in every area of a society is experienced at an intense level in employment area in Turkey. This inequality, though has been decreasing, goes on in every aspect of employment such as female labor force participation rate, unemployment rate, underemployment rate, informal employment, salaries etc., and slows down the process of enhancement of women’s position in the society. Evaluating Turkey with regards to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals 2015, it is clearly observed that no significant progress could be achieved in reduction of social gender inequality. One of the important goals in the development process in the world is to enhance welfare in countries by increasing woman employment. As a consequence of expansion in services sectors in the last two decades, female labor force participation has approached to but it is still lower than that of males labor force. It is of necessity to present women’s labour through a comparison of data from various countries in order to shed light to the problem of gender-based inequality women live through in Turkey. Therefore, in this study, women’s labour has been evaluated through a comparative analysis of Turkey and preselected OECD countries. The findings of the study have reached several different features of Turkey and have defined similarities between Turkey and these countries.

Perception of gender equality in new media

AbstractIntroduction : Social gender is a concept that is used to describe the roles to be fulfilled, behavioral patterns and duties and responsibilities expected from males and females in socialization process according to the culture of the society where they live in different from biological gender. Media is a significant tool for determination and internalization of social gender roles. In parallel with social change and transformation, the change had in mass communication tools become effective in every field. New communication aspect called as new media provide opportunity for individuals to express themselves and present their opinions on every issue freely different from other mass communication tools.Methods : In this study, it was aimed to investigate the comments made on the concepts of "gender equality" and "gender inequality" on the social sharing sites named Ekşi Sözlük and Uludağ Sözlük. The comments made over the concepts of “social gender equality” and “social gender inequality” in web site called “Ekşi Sözlük” and “Uludağ Sözlük” were reviewed during to 1 June- 15 September 2015 in this study and it was targeted to research the perception of social gender. For analyzing data, content analyzis was applied to comments. Results :In the study, 105 comments made on Ekşi Sözlük and 39 comments made on Uludağ Sözlük in regard to the subject matter were categorized and analyzed as "gender equality/inequality" and "gender roles". According to the data attained from analysis of the study, as opposed to conventional media, it is seen that the comments made on gender are quite varied. Besides such comments which reduce women merely to a body, insult them, assert that they lack the knowledge, skills and competence for existing in the public sphere, comments exceeding the equalitarian viewpoint on the subject, grounding on justice and equity have been identified.Discussion : Reflections of the conventional patriarchal mentality are evidently seen in the comments on Ekşi Sözlük and Uludağ Sözlük. Being an environment where an issue is discussed by people in several numbers and having quite different opinions in different perspectives, social networking sites provide an important source of knowledge to the forms of peoples’ understanding and interpretation of social life. According to the data obtained in the research, the perception of social gender has still been produced in new media. However, it can be said that social gender perception is directed through the course where the understanding of “difference is not inequality” with an upper point of view exceeding the concepts of equality and inequality is grounded on in new media despite adopting an opponent discourse on the contrary to mainstream media.

Social Gender Inequality in the Member, Candidate, Potential Canditate Transition Economies of the European Union and Turkey

In this research, a comparative analysis of the gender inequalities between Turkey the member, candidate and potential candidate economies of the European Union is tried to be examined. To ensure equality and justice and to reach the level of the EU Member states in this regard, it is a necessity to reduce the gender inequality in society. Rather than comparing Turkey with all transition economies within the frame of the EU standards of gender inequality, it was decided to compare Turkey with the transition economies like itself that are EU Members, Member candidates and potential candidates. The Gender Inequality Index that was developed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) was used in the aforementioned comparisons. Research results show proof that there are unfavorable differences in Turkey in regards to the comparison of gender inequality with transition economies that are EU members, member candidates and potential candidates. This result shows that Turkey has omissions in all components of gender inequality, categorized as health care, participation in political life, access to education and participation in working life. Therefore Turkey needs to reconsider all these categories and their indicators.

Importance Of Rural Women As Part Of The Population In Turkey

Abstract Turkey has a total land potential of 78 million ha with a population about 74 million. About one third of the land is arable, and 26% of the population has lived in rural areas. The active population, work in the rural area of Turkey, is 14,767,000 and women have about 51% of that population. The population of women working in agriculture has shown an increase from year to year. In that regard, importance of women in agricultural activities and rural development is very clear. In agricultural enterprises, the individuals are comprised from 54% men and 46% women whose main work is agricultural activities and female economically active population in agriculture is about 55% in Turkey. The Social Gender Inequality Index, SGII, can be used to make some recommendations for policy makers. SGII is still at a high rate of 0.366 in Turkey. In present paper, some secondary data such as reports and statistical data were analyzed about the contributions of women labor uses in agriculture.

TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYET PERSPEKTİFİNDE SAĞLIK VE TIBBİLEŞTİRME

Gender roles and expectations that are described and imposed by the society and the consequent gender discrimination bring about inequality and negative consequences in various areas. Health is one of the areas which cause the inequality brought about by gender roles and expectations. Between health and gender there is an invisible and inseparable bond. In this study, it is intended to address the approach to men's health and women's health within the perspective of social gender roles. The effects of the social gender roles and the inequalities on women's and men's health are examined. It is put forward that, instead of identifying and solving the health problems that are caused by social gender inequalities, health is being redefined and restructured by medicalized fields and subjects; and the social gender roles are reinforced along the process

Family shifts: families, policies, and gender equality

Families have experienced tectonic in the last decades of the twentieth century. Such major shifts include gender equality and the rise of biotechnology. In FamiIy Shfts: Families, Policies and Gender Equality, Margrit Eichler argues that concepts and language lag behind these changes, with serious social policy consequences. Eichler points out that family policies (which include a gamut of social welfare policies, taxation regulations and family laws) are at least partially shaped by what policy makers think the family should be. This resonates with Carol Bacchi's (1999)' assertion that it is useful to think about politics as discursive battles over meaning. Bacchi suggests that the state is always intervening and involved in the shaping of definitions, rather than simply responding to changes and problems. Eichler uses three models to demonstrate the significance of the conceptual and ideological underpinning of family policy. The patriarchal model of the family, based upon gender differentiation and inequality, was particularly prevalent in the first half of the twentieth century (although its legacy certainly remains apparent in current Australian social policy). The individual responsibility model represents an ideological shift from gender differentiation to a commitment to equal treatment of individuals, regardless of gender. Eichler shows that both these models are flawed. However the individual responsibility model moves away from enshrined legal and social gender inequality towards formal equality, which has had the potential to disguise and reinforce actual inequality. Further, she demonstrates that in both models the public or community has no responsibility for the economic well-being of the family. In the patriarchal model, responsibility is held by the father, in the individual responsibility model, by a parent. An alternative to these models is what Eichler calls the social responsibility model. This is based upon principles including minimised stratification upon the basis of sex, that constitute a family unit, and that the public share responsibilitywith both parents for the care of dependent children. This last component directly challenges premises and policies that reflect the individual responsibility model. Public responsibility depends upon an acknowledgement of the social value of caring for dependents. That functioning relationships constitute a family unit is perhaps one of