Social Comparison Tendencies Research Articles

Exploring Gender Differences, Perceptions, and Behaviors: The Interplay Between Social Media Addiction and Social Appearance Anxiety Among Young Adults

The pervasive influence of social media has significantly impacted the mental health and well-being of young adults, particularly through increased social media addiction (SMA) and social appearance anxiety (SAA). Our study investigates the relationship between social media addiction and social appearance anxiety among young adults, highlighting the interplay between compulsive social media use and concerns about physical appearance. A sample of 549 undergraduate students from Turkey, including 339 females and 210 males, completed the Social Media Addiction Scale (SMAS) and the Social Appearance Anxiety Scale (SAAS). Data were analyzed using correlation, independent t-tests, and linear regression to explore the relationships and differences between variables. Our study found significant relationships between SMA and SAA, with higher levels of addiction linked to increased appearance anxiety. Social comparison tendencies and photo-editing behaviors were also associated with higher SMA and SAA. No significant gender differences were observed, suggesting a universal impact of social media on these psychological issues. The findings underscore the intertwined nature of SMA and SAA, emphasizing the need for comprehensive interventions that address both aspects to improve mental health outcomes. Promoting positive self-comparisons and reducing photo-editing behaviors online can help mitigate the negative effects of social media use on young adults’ mental well-being.

Developmental patterns and computational mechanisms of school-aged children’s fairness-related decision making under social comparison

The developmental patterns and computational mechanisms underlying the impact of unfair offers and social comparisons on school-aged children’s fairness-related decision making remain unclear. To address this, we recruited 190 children aged 8 to 12 years (52.1% female) in a multi-responder ultimatum game. Results revealed an age-related decline in children’s tendency to reject unfair offers, partially mediated by emotions, alongside a slight increase in rejecting inferior social comparisons. Computational modeling identified two distinct motivations guiding children’s rejection behavior: inequity aversion and inferior social comparison avoidance. Furthermore, there was significant variability in responses to superior social comparisons, with some children displaying aversion and others seeking. Our refined model enhances the explanatory power of inequity aversion theory in complex multi-player social scenarios, validating and refining existing theories. In addition, the exploration of superior social comparison tendencies reveals individual heterogeneity, enriching our understanding of children’s social comparisons. These findings contribute to elucidating the developmental patterns and internal mechanisms of children’s socialization processes, offering implications for promoting their social adaptation and mental health.

The impact of internet addiction on college students' academic procrastination: A moderated mediation model

We examined the influence of internet addiction on academic procrastination among college students, with self-control and learning engagement as mediators and social comparison tendency as a moderator. Using data from 328 questionnaires completed by college students, this study revealed that internet addiction was positively related to academic procrastination, and self-control and learning engagement had mediating effects on this relationship. Further, social comparison tendency played a moderating role, such that the effect of internet addiction on academic procrastination was stronger when college students' social comparison tendency was low (vs. high). Implications of the findings are discussed.

Examining the relationship between Exposure to Avengers Action Figures and Men’s Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorders in Pakistan

This study investigates the relationship between social comparison, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders among males in five major cities of Pakistan. The sample comprised 400 male participants drawn from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. The Social Comparison Theory serves as the theoretical framework for examining how individuals' perceptions of their bodies are influenced by comparisons with others. Results revealed significant correlations between eating disorder symptoms and body dissatisfaction as well as social comparison tendencies. More specifically, there was a larger tendency toward disordered eating practices and higher degrees of body dissatisfaction among those who participated in upward social comparison. The results emphasis the importance of considering social comparison processes in understanding body image concerns and eating disorders among males in Pakistan. Implications for intervention and prevention efforts aimed at promoting positive body image and healthy eating behaviors are discussed. The implications of these findings extend to intervention and prevention strategies geared towards fostering positive body image and cultivating healthy eating behaviors among this demographic.

The Role of Social Comparison and Online Social Support in Social Media Addiction Mediated by Self-Esteem and Loneliness

Introduction: The diversity of information on social media provides a ubiquitous possibility for social comparison. Online social comparisons have both detrimental and beneficial effects; besides lowering one’s self-esteem, heightening loneliness and addiction, they also bring together people with similar interests which may offer a form of social support. Aims: This study examines a path model for understanding the link between social comparison and social media addiction while examining online social support, loneliness, and self-esteem. Methods: Hungarian university students (N = 201, 70.6% women, aged between 18 and 30 years, SD = 2.77) completed an online survey in the spring of 2022. Results: The final path model suggests that social comparison can directly contribute to social media addiction. This link was mediated by loneliness and self-esteem, resulting in a path with different outcomes: a) social comparison may strengthen loneliness (β = .22, p < .001) which can lead to lower self-esteem (β = .60, p < .001), and b) social comparison may have a negative effect on self-esteem (β = -.22, p < .001) which can reduce social media addiction (β = -.26, p < .001). In addition, social comparison may help obtain online social support (β = .15, p < .050) which can reduce loneliness (β = -.41, p < .001) but increase the likelihood of addiction (β = .26, p < .001). Conclusions: These findings draw attention to the double-edged sword of social comparison and online social support: we need to learn to consciously manage online social comparison tendencies.

취업준비 대학생의 사회부과완벽주의와 취업불안의 관계에서 마음챙김과 사회비교경향성의 이중매개효과

Objectives The purpose of this study was to verify the dual mediating effect of mindfulness and social comparison tendency in the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and job-seeking anxiety in college students preparing for the job.
 Methods The package of questionnaires was conducted on 316 college students in the third and fourth grades of universities from April to July in 2020. The statistical analyses which were descriptive statistics, correlational analysis, dual mediating analysis were using SPSS 22 and Macro of SPSS Process.
 Results First, the results of the analysis showed that socially prescribed perfectionism, job-seeking anxiety, mindfulness and social comparison tendency had a significant correlations. There were positive correlations between the socially prescribed perfectionism and job-seeking anxiety(r=.37, p<.01), social comparison tendency(r=.22, p<.01), however, negative correlations between the socially prescribed perfectionism with mindfulness(r=-.45, p<.01). Second, mindfulness was partially mediated in the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and job-seeking anxiety, however, social comparison tendency on it’s own have no mediating effect between independant variable and dependent variable. Third, mindfulness and social comparison tendency sequentially double-mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and job-seeking anxiety, which variables explained 29% of total variance.
 Conclusions Through this study, it was found that mindfulness and social comparison tendency play an important role in the relation between socially prescribed perfectionism and job-seeking anxiety. This suggests that it is useful to pay attention to the mediating variables in educational and counseling interventions to decrease job-anxiety in college students with a high level of social prescribed perfectionism.

Edited Pictures in Social Network and Borderline Personality Organization: Focusing on Shame, Guilt, Social Comparison, and Body Image

The habit to share edited pictures through social networks have been reported in young people and associated to psychological vulnerabilities. The research addresses the effects of the exposure to edited pictures on guilt, shame, social comparison tendencies, body image dissatisfaction. Moreover, the study assesses the mediating role of borderline organization on perceived identification and attractiveness in edited and original personal pictures.
 We asked seventy young women to rate perceived identification and attractiveness in their original and edited pictures. Subjects report higher identification in the original picture compared to the edited ones; attractiveness does not change between original and edited pictures, but high identification in edited ones negatively affects the score of attractiveness in original versions. They report negative associations between the level of identification and attractiveness in the original picture and dysphoria, guilt and body image. Identification and attractiveness in personal pictures are influenced by psychological vulnerabilities. Eventually, borderline organization features mediate the association between guilt and body image satisfaction with identification and attractiveness respectively. Furthermore, psychopathological features might affect individual self-perception and behavior in social network.

Why the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence? – the research of Chinese consumer xenocentrism: take electronics as an example

PurposeThe economy of China has developed rapidly, and its international status has quickly risen in the past 30 years. China is shifting from a major exporter into a major consumer, becoming an essential part of the international market. However, some global brands make wrong market decisions because of a lack of understanding of Eastern consumer culture.Design/methodology/approachBased on consumer xenocentrism, this paper helps global enterprises better understand Chinese consumers' psychology in foreign goods, which is conducive to the development of transnational trade. This study proposes a hypothesis model based on previous literature. The authors collected 300 questionnaires from China and tested the model by SPSS24 and AMOS24.FindingsThe findings show that curiosity and country of origin positively affect consumer xenocentrism, consumer xenocentrism has a positive impact on word-of-mouth and purchase intention, word-of-mouth plays a mediating role in xenocentrism and purchase intention and social comparison tendency plays a moderating role in consumer xenocentrism and purchase intention. Simultaneously, this paper develops a scale measuring consumer xenocentrism to provide some quantitative support for this research.Originality/valueThe authors propose some suggestions basing on the research of consumer xenocentrism and provide some further directions.

The prototype willingness model: An application to adolescent driver speeding

Introduction: Many young drivers are involved in crashes due to speeding. Some studies have used the Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) to explain the risky driving behavior of young people. However, many have measured PWM constructs in a manner inconsistent with its formulation. The PWM asserts that the social reaction pathway is underpinned by a heuristic comparison of oneself with a cognitive prototype of someone who engages in a risky behavior. This proposition has not been comprehensively examined and few PWM studies specifically examine social comparison. The current study investigates intentions, expectations, and willingness to speed by teen drivers using operationalizations of PWM constructs more aligned with their original conceptualizations. Additionally, the influence of dispositional social comparison tendency on the social reaction pathway is examined to further test the original propositions underpinning the PWM. Method: Two hundred and eleven independently driving adolescents completed an online survey including items measuring PWM constructs and social comparison tendency. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to investigate the influence of perceived vulnerability, descriptive and injunctive norms, and prototypes on speeding intentions, expectations, and willingness. A moderation analysis examined the effect of social comparison tendency on the association between prototype perceptions and willingness. Results: The regression models explained substantial amounts of variance in intentions (39%), expectations (49%), and willingness (30%) to speed. There was no evidence that social comparison tendency influences the relationship between prototypes and willingness. Conclusions: The PWM is useful for predicting teenage risky driving. More studies should confirm that social comparison tendency does not moderate the social reaction pathway. However, there may be need for further theoretical development of the PWM. Practical applications: The study suggests that it may be possible to develop interventions to reduce adolescent driver speeding based on manipulation of PWM constructs such as speeding driver prototypes.

항공사 승무원 취업준비생의 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족과 취업불안의 관계에서 사회비교 경향성의 매개효과

Objectives The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and job-seeking anxiety and to verify the mediating effect of social comparison tendency. Methods The study included 303 flight attendant job applicants who were asked to complete a survey on self-concept clarity, intolerance of uncertainty, social comparison tendency, and job-seeking anxiety from January 1 to March 31, 2022, for a total of three months, and 303 of them were used for statistical analysis, excluding unreliable responses. Results The results showed that intolerance of uncertainty and social comparison tendency were positively correlated with job-seeking anxiety. Additionally, social comparison tendency was found to have mediating effects on the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and job-seeking anxiety. Conclusions The results suggest the need for further investigation of the important role of social comparison tendency related to uncertainty tolerance and career anxiety of flight attendant job applicants. Based on the findings of this study, the researchers discussed ways to improve career education and counseling for flight attendant job applicants who experience emotional difficulties in their preparation. Other implications and limitations of this study are discussed, along with suggestions for future studies.

Adolescents and social media: The effects of frequency of use, self-presentation, social comparison, and self esteem on possible self imagery

IntroductionAmerican adolescents continue to show a strong social media presence. This presence entails consistent monitoring of how they present themselves, and how that presentation compares to others, which in turn impacts the versions of the self they share with others. These versions include their hoped for (e.g. high academic achiever) or feared selves (e.g. inconsistent academic achiever) which have been referred to as possible selves. Here, we explored the contributions of social media use, self-presentation, social comparison, and self-esteem on adolescents' reflection of their possible selves. We also examined age as a factor to determine whether early and late adolescents reflect on and craft their social media presence in similar fashions. Ideally, all adolescents would seek to share a balance of possible selves whereby their social media presence includes both a hoped for self and a feared self in the same aspect of their lives (e.g. academic achievement and failure). These balances have been linked to positive outcomes in offline contexts. MethodsWe explored the relative contributions of age, self-esteem, social media use, online self-presentation behaviors, and online social comparison tendencies to the ideation of balanced possible selves among 152 adolescents aged 11 to 18 years (55.9% female). We also included an exploratory analysis of gender differences within the content of possible selves reported. ResultsThe results of a sequential regression analysis, regressing the balance of possible selves on each of the independent variables, yielded no significant differences. A chi square analysis, however, revealed differences among males and females in the content of feared selves as female participants reported more feared selves involving interpersonal relationships than males. ConclusionFurther exploration of possible selves in the digital context is warranted given our findings that adolescent females, in particular, focus on interpersonal relationships as they develop their self-esteem and self-concept.

Social Media Influencer Viewing and Intentions to Change Appearance: A Large Scale Cross-Sectional Survey on Female Social Media Users in China

Previous studies have reported that general or photo-specific social media use was associated with women’s body dissatisfaction and body image disturbance. The current study replicated and expanded upon these findings by identifying the positive association between social media influencer viewing and intentions to change appearance. This study surveyed a sample of 7,015 adult female TikTok users in China regarding their social media influencer viewing frequency, self-objectification, social comparison tendencies when watching short videos, intentions to change appearance, and demographics. The results showed that female TikTok users’ self-objectification mediated the association between their influencer viewing frequency and their intentions to change appearance. Furthermore, social comparison tendencies moderated the association between influencer viewing and intentions to change appearance in that the proposed association was stronger for female TikTok users who had lower social comparison tendencies when watching short videos, compared to female TikTok users who had higher social comparison tendencies. The counter-intuitive finding on social comparison tendencies indicated that women who have higher social comparison tendencies may be more aware of the negative influences and adjust their expectations. The observed association between social media influencer viewing and intentions to change appearance was statistically significant but trivial in terms of effect size. Although the result could warn policymakers and practitioners to design media and health literacy campaigns to cultivate body positivity, caution should be exercised when evaluating the practical implications.

Spread of Negative Affect via Social Media: The Affective Consequences of Viewing Others’ Fortunate and Unfortunate Social Media Posts

Abstract Research suggests that viewing successful or fortunate others’ social media portrayals may promote a more negative hedonic experience via social comparison tendencies, but this notion has rarely been tested experimentally. Here, we tested the possibility that viewing fortunate and unfortunate social media portrayals (vs. neutral portrayals) may also promote a negative hedonic experience. In Experiment 1, participants indicated their positive and negative affect before and after viewing either fortunate, unfortunate, or mundane (neutral) social media portrayals. Inconsistent with conventional theorizing, only participants who viewed the unfortunate portrayal reported more negative affect balance than participants who viewed the neutral portrayal. Experiment 2 provided conceptually similar results, indicating that participants viewing an unfortunate (vs. fortunate) portrayal indicated more negative affect balance. Although somewhat inconsistent with conventional wisdom, the findings suggest negative hedonic experiences can spread on social media.

The Influence of Social Comparison Tendency on Subjective Well—Being Based on the Mediating Role of Appearance Anxiety

社会比较倾向；外貌焦虑；主观幸福感；大学生

불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족이 초심상담자의 진로 불안에 미치는 영향: 사회비교경향성과 초심상담자 어려움의 매개효과

본 연구는 초심상담자들의 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족이 사회비교경향성과 초심상담자 어려움을 매개하여 진로불안에 영향을 미치는 과정을 탐색하였다. 상담 경력 3년 이내의 상담자를 대상으로 온라인 설문을 진행하였으며, 총 204명의 초심상담자들이 설문에 참여하였다. SPSS Process Macro를 사용한 이중매개모형 분석 결과에 따르면, 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족과 진로불안과의 관계에서 사회비교경향성의 매개효과와 초심상담자 어려움의 매개효과가 각각 유의미하게 나타났다. 즉 불확실성에 대한 인내력이 부족할수록 사회비교를 많이 하고 진로불안이 높아지는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한 불확실성에 대한 인내력이 부족할수록 초심상담자 어려움이 높아지고 진로불안도 증가하는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. 마지막으로 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족과 진로불안과의 관계에서 사회비교경향성과 초심상담자 어려움의 순차적 이중매개효과가 유의미하게 나타났다. 초심상담자의 불확실성에 대한 인내력 부족은 사회비교경향성을 높이고, 높은 사회비교경향성은 초심상담자의 어려움을 증가시켰으며 이는 결과적으로 진로불안을 더 크게 경험하게 하는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구의 결과를 바탕으로 초심상담자들이 경험하는 진로불안을 감소시키기 위한 방안들을 제시하였고, 본 연구의 제한점과 후속 연구를 위한 제언을 논하였다.

Direct versus Indirect Well-Being Measures: Using Partially Structured Stimuli to Evaluate Well-Being

Given the important limitations of direct (explicit) measures, the study of indirect (implicit) measures of psychological constructs has received increased attention of social researchers. However, in the field of well-being the measures that have traditionally been used have tried to capture people’s well-being in an explicit and direct way, with some exceptions that are based mainly on adaptations of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Given the critics that the IAT has received, the first aim of the present research was to develop a new life satisfaction measure using partially structured stimuli (PSWBS). The second goal was to examine the relation between direct and indirect well-being measures. In the first study, PSWBS showed good internal consistency, test–retest reliability and construct validity. Factorial analyses indicated that this measure acted as an indirect measure. In addition, direct and indirect well-being showed a significant but weak relation. To explain this result, in a second study we analyzed the moderating role of social comparison orientation on the relation between direct and indirect well-being measures. As expected, more social comparison tendency implied a stronger relation. In a third study we analyzed the criterion validity of both kind of measures. The PSWBS, the Personal Wellbeing Index-Adults and the Satisfaction With Life Scale significantly correlated with a criterion validity coefficient in terms of a semi-structured interview made by an external experimenter. Finally, in a fourth experiment we analyzed the influence of social desirability on direct and indirect measures of well-being. In contexts of high desirability, partially structured stimuli seemed to be more resistant to response factors (e.g., control of impressions) than traditional direct measures.

The validity and reliability of the Farsi version of the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (F-BEECOM) among Iranian male and female students

Body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparison tendencies are implicated in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among Western women. To date, no published study examines eating- and exercise-related comparisons in a male or non-Western sample. The current series of studies fills these gaps in the literature by translating and validating the existing measure of these comparisons (the 18-item Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure [BEECOM]) in samples of Iranian men and women. In Studies 1 and 2, female (n = 284) and male (n = 302) participants completed the translated Farsi BEECOM. Scores were analyzed by exploratory factor analyses (EFA) revealing two different three factor, 15-item scale structures for men and women. In Studies 3 and 4, participants (female n = 384; male n = 253) completed measures of social comparison and psychological functioning in one session. These data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and Pearson correlations. Each CFA yielded adequately fitting models. Results support the use of two different 15-item Farsi BEECOM measures with women and men and highlight unique gender differences in social comparison tendencies. The resulting F-BEECOM demonstrates strong psychometric properties and will be a useful research tool in Iranian women and men.

When positive reviews on social networking sites backfire: The role of social comparison and malicious envy

ABSTRACT Many studies highlight the merits of positive reviews on social networking sites (SNSs), suggesting that consumers tend to consider these to be trustworthy recommendations. This study draws attention to the potential negative effects of luxury hotels’ positive reviews on SNSs. We propose that positive reviews may encourage social comparison and trigger feelings of malicious envy, thereby negatively influencing purchase intentions. Results from two experiments show that high similarity between the review writer and readers increases readers’ social comparison tendency, which induces malicious envy when the writer is considered undeserving of luxury hotel consumption. This leads to decreased purchase intentions toward the hotel brand mentioned in the review and increased purchase intentions toward competing hotel brands. The findings have implications for buzz marketing strategies seeking to mitigate the risk of eliciting malicious envy on SNSs.

Tinder blue, mental flu? Exploring the associations between Tinder use and well-being

ABSTRACT While Tinder (i.e., a popular mobile dating app) has received quite some research attention, its effects on users’ well-being have rarely been addressed. The present study investigates the extent to which Tinder users’ compulsive use, motives, subjective online success and self-conscious social comparison are associated with their well-being (i.e., joviality, sadness, and anxiety). In total, 296 (39% females; 90% heterosexuals) emerging adults who were currently using Tinder completed an online survey. The results suggest that while using Tinder compulsively and for relationship seeking can increase joviality, they may trigger more negative than positive affect. Moreover, feeling unsuccessful on Tinder and making self-conscious social comparisons were positively associated with sadness and anxiety, and negatively associated with joviality. The results seem to imply that Tinder users need to be aware of their compulsive Tinder use, relationship seeking motive, unsuccessful feeling, and/or self-conscious social comparison tendency on Tinder to better understand the consequences of their Tinder use. Although the current study is based on cross-sectional data, the findings suggest an association between using Tinder and users’ well-being. Future research could extend these findings by utilizing a longitudinal research design and including other aspects of well-being and psychopathology such as life satisfaction and depression.

Sharing Workout Experiences on Social Networking Sites: Its Moderating Factors and Well-Being Outcomes

ABSTRACT The study explored moderating factors and well-being outcomes of sharing workout experiences on social networking sites (SNSs). A survey of 424 participants assessed the degree to which participants post fitness information on SNSs, moderating factors, and outcomes of posting fitness behavior on SNSs. The results showed for individuals who intensively share workout experiences on SNSs, there is a positive relationship between public self-consciousness and physical well-being, accountability and physical well-being, and social comparison tendency and physical well-being. And, individuals who shared workout experiences on SNSs had greater public self-consciousness, public expectancy, accountability, and social comparison tendency than those who did not on SNSs. By identifying the moderating factors of posting fitness experiences on SNSs, as well as the boundary conditions for the relationship between these moderating factors and physical well-being, this study provides practical implications for public health campaign messages, and contributes to the theoretical accumulation of studies regarding eHealth and SNSs.