Social Comparison Information Research Articles

Other-self similarity, motivation, emotion, and learning

BackgroundEffort investment is a critical component of learning and can be influenced by social comparisons, motivation, and emotion. AimsThe current research investigated to what extent social comparisons and multimedia type associate with learning performance, as well as motivation and emotion, while controlling for spatial ability. SamplesParticipants were 129 (Study 1) and 138 (Study 2) female undergraduate students. MethodsParticipants were randomly assigned to study groups that received different visual interventions and multimedia types. The visual interventions showing learning progress in terms of effort were the same for both studies. However, in Study 2, the visual interventions with social comparison information also included textual other-self similarity information. ResultsStudy 1 showed no significant main effects of the visual interventions or multimedia type on task performance. As expected, spatial ability was associated with task performance. Motivation declined over time in all study groups. While Study 2 also showed no significant main effects, spatial ability did not covary with task performance. Motivation and emotion increased over time in all study groups except for the control group. These findings suggest that other-self similarity information is associated with motivation and emotion, as well as learning outcomes independent of spatial ability. ConclusionsThe research offers unique empirical evidence of the influence of effort feedback when accompanied by other-self similarity information on motivational-affective consequences and cognitive performance.

The Social Comparison Rumination Scale: Development, Psychometric Properties, and Associations With Perfectionism, Narcissism, Burnout, and Distress.

In the current article, we describe the development and validation of the Social Comparison Rumination Scale. This measured was developed as a supplement to existing social comparison measures and to enable us to determine its potential relevance to perfectionism and other personality constructs. The Social Comparison Rumination Scale (SCRS) is a six-item inventory assessing the extent to which an individual is cognitively preoccupied and thinking repetitively about social comparison outcomes and information. Three studies with five samples of university students are described. Psychometric analyses established the SCRS consists of one factor assessed with high internal consistency and the measure is reliable and valid. Analyses showed that elevated levels of social comparison rumination are associated with trait perfectionism, perfectionistic automatic thoughts, perfectionistic self-presentation, ruminative brooding, burnout, depression, and fear of negative evaluation. Links were also established between social comparison rumination and both narcissism and dispositional envy. Overall, our findings support the further use of the SCRS and highlight the tendency of many people to think in deleterious ways about social comparisons long after the actual comparisons have taken place. We discuss social comparison rumination within the context of concerns about excessive social media use and young people being exposed to seemingly perfect lives that became a vexing cognitive preoccupation.

The Polarizing Performance Effect of Private Social Comparison Information

The Polarizing Performance Effect of Private Social Comparison Information

The Longitudinal Effect of Digitally Administered Feedback on the Eco-Driving Behavior of Company Car Drivers

In the global fight against climate change, stimulating eco-driving could contribute to the reduction of CO2 emissions. Company car drivers are a main target in this challenge as they represent a significant market share and are typically not motivated financially to drive more fuel efficiently (and thus more eco-friendly). As this target group has received little previous research attention, we examine whether digitally administered feedback and coaching systems can trigger such company car owners to drive eco-friendly. We do so by using respondents (employees of a financial services company (N = 327)) that voluntarily have a digital device (‘dongle’) installed in their company car, which monitors and records driving behavior-related variables. In a longitudinal real-life field study, we communicate eco-driving recommendations (e.g., avoid harsh braking, accelerate gently, etc.) to the respondent drivers via a digital (computer) interface. Over a 21-week time frame (one block of seven weeks before the intervention, seven weeks of intervention, and seven weeks after the intervention), we test whether eco-driving recommendations in combination with personalized, graphical ‘eco-score index evolution’ feedback increase eco-driving behavior. We also experimentally evaluate the impact of adding social comparison elements to the feedback (e.g., providing feedback on a person’s eco-driving performance compared to that of the same car brand users). Structural Equation Modeling (in MPlus 8.4) is used to analyze data. Our results show that digitally administered personal performance feedback increases eco-driving behavior both during and after the feedback intervention. However, we do not observe increased effects when social comparison information is added to the feedback. As this latter element is surprising, we conclude with a reflection on possible explanations and suggest areas for future research. We contribute to the sustainable eco-driving literature by researching an understudied group: company car drivers. More specifically, we contribute by demonstrating the effectiveness of digitally administered personal performance feedback on eco-driving for this group and by observing and reflecting on the (in)effectiveness of feedback containing social comparison information.

An experimental test of the Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect using an immersive virtual reality classroom

Academic self-concept plays a central role in successful learning and is substantially shaped by social comparisons. Research on the so-called Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect (BFLPE) has yielded a highly robust and generalizable pattern of negative effects of higher class/school average achievement on students’ self-concept when controlling for individual achievement. However, most BFLPE studies have not provided information about the causes behind or the mechanisms underlying the proposed effects. To address this, we used a fully immersive virtual reality (IVR) classroom to experimentally test the extent to which students recognized performance-related classroom behavior as implicit social comparison information and how these perceptions explained differences in students’ self-concepts. Participants (N = 381 sixth-grade students) experienced an authentic yet standardized IVR teaching situation with virtual classmates who exhibited different performance levels (operationalized as 20% vs. 35% vs. 65% vs. 80% of classmates raising their hands). Hand-raising behavior had a significant positive effect on students’ perceptions of the class’ performance level (d20% vs. 65% = 0.60; d20% vs. 80% = 1.24). In line with the BFLPE, results showed a negative effect of higher performing classmates on students’ situational self-concept (d20% vs. 80% = 0.30). Students’ perceptions of the class’ performance level fully explained the effect of classmates’ hand-raising behavior on students’ situational self-concept. The study’s experimental approach provided new insights into the emergence of social comparison effects in the classroom, highlighting the major role of students’ perceptions of their classmates’ performance-related behavior, and moreover demonstrated the general potential of using IVR in classroom research.

Investigating social comparison behaviour in an immersive virtual reality classroom based on eye-movement data

Higher-achieving peers have repeatedly been found to negatively impact students’ evaluations of their own academic abilities (i.e., Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect). Building on social comparison theory, this pattern is assumed to result from students comparing themselves to their classmates; however, based on existing research designs, it remains unclear how exactly students make use of social comparison information in the classroom. To determine the extent to which students (N = 353 sixth graders) actively attend and respond to social comparison information in the form of peers’ achievement-related behaviour, we used eye-tracking data from an immersive virtual reality (IVR) classroom. IVR classrooms offer unprecedented opportunities for psychological classroom research as they allow to integrate authentic classroom scenarios with maximum experimental control. In the present study, we experimentally varied virtual classmates’ achievement-related behaviour (i.e., their hand-raising in response to the teacher’s questions) during instruction, and students’ eye and gaze data showed that they actively processed this social comparison information. Students who attended more to social comparison information (as indicated by more frequent and longer gaze durations at peer learners) had less favourable self-evaluations. We discuss implications for the future use of IVR environments to study behaviours in the classroom and beyond.

Understanding employee reactions to merit pay: the roles of interpretation of social comparison information and self-esteem

Understanding employee reactions to merit pay: the roles of interpretation of social comparison information and self-esteem

The role of dispositional envy, state envy, and social comparisons in predicting learning outcomes

Limited studies to date have investigated how objectively assessed learning outcomes are associated with dispositional malicious and benign envy, together with state malicious and benign envy. The current experimental study modeled an online learning environment. Participants (N = 120) received one of three types of visual feedback showing their progress throughout learning task. The feedback showed varying upward social comparison information, or lack thereof, to arouse state malicious and benign envy. The findings revealed that dispositional malicious and benign envy had direct effects on learning outcomes. State malicious envy, however, had no effect on learning, and state benign envy did not pass the manipulation check. The social comparison with an attainable standard requiring less effort had a total effect on learning outcomes but no indirect effect, implying that there were potentially unmeasured factors (e.g., affective or motivational) arising from the intervention. The study offers a unique contribution to the literature with rare empirical evidence supporting the association between dispositional envy (malicious and benign) and objectively assessed cognitive performance. The study also suggests practical guidelines to facilitate constructive social comparison effects, while limiting the potential of envy or other affective or motivational consequences that may impinge upon learning.

Development and Initial Testing of a Personalized, Adaptive, and Socially Focused Web Tool to Support Physical Activity Among Women in Midlife: Multidisciplinary and User-Centered Design Approach.

BackgroundWomen in midlife are vulnerable to developing cardiovascular disease, particularly those who have conditions such as hypertension. Physical activity (PA) can reduce risk, but efforts to promote PA in this population have been only modestly effective. More attention to social influences on PA behavior may be useful, particularly social support and social comparison processes. Activating these processes with digital tools can provide easy access that is flexible to the needs of women in midlife.ObjectiveThis paper describes the user-centered design processes of developing and conducting initial evaluation of a personalized and adaptive web application, tailored to the social needs of women in midlife. The goal was to gather feedback from the population of interest, before and during the design process.MethodsThis study was conducted in 4 stages. The first and second authors (DA and AFL) developed technical specifications, informed by their experience with the population of interest. We collected feedback on potential content for the web application with women in midlife using both interviews (5/10, 50%; mean age 47.4, SD 6.66 years; mean BMI 35.3, SD 9.55 kg/m2) and surveys (5/10, 50%; mean age 51, SD 6.60 years; mean BMI 32.7, SD 8.39 kg/m2). We used their feedback to inform support messages and peer profiles (ie, sources of social comparison information). Nine members of the behavioral science team and 3 testers unfamiliar with the web application completed internal testing. We conducted naturalistic functionality testing with a different group of women in midlife (n=5; mean age 50, SD 6.26 years; mean BMI 30.1, SD 5.83 kg/m2), who used the web application as intended for 4 days and provided feedback at the end of this period.ResultsIterative storyboard development resulted in programming specifications for a prototype of the web application. We used content feedback to select and refine the support messages and peer profiles to be added. The following 2 rounds of internal testing identified bugs and other problems regarding the web application’s functioning and full data collection procedure. Problems were addressed or logged for future consideration. Naturalistic functionality testing revealed minimal further problems; findings showed preliminary acceptability of the web application and suggested that women may select different social content across days.ConclusionsA multidisciplinary and user-centered design approach led to a personalized and adaptive web application, tailored to the social needs of women in midlife. Findings from testing with this population demonstrated the feasibility and acceptability of the new application and supported further development toward its use in daily life. We describe several potential uses of the web application and next steps for its development. We also discuss the lessons learned and offer recommendations for future collaborations between behavioral and computer scientists to develop similar tools.

When and why does status threat at work bring out the best and the worst in us? A temporal social comparison theory

This paper seeks to explain when and why people respond to status threat at work with behaviors oriented toward either self-improvement or interpersonal harming. To that end, we extend the established static social comparison perspective on status threat. Specifically, we introduce the notion of temporal proximity of status threat, which is informed by five temporal social comparison markers. We argue that people construe distal future status gaps as a challenge (and thus show self-improvement-oriented responses), but construe a more proximal status gap as a threat (and thus engage in negative interpersonal behaviors). Further, we introduce three factors of uncertainty that may render the underlying temporal comparison less reliable, and thereby less useful for guiding one's response. Overall, our temporal social comparison theory integrates and extends current theorizing on status threat in organizations by fully acknowledging the dynamic nature of social comparisons. Plain Language Summary Employees often compare themselves to others to evaluate their status. If they perceive that their status is at threat or risk losing status, they engage in behaviors to prevent status loss. These behaviors can be positive, aimed at improving one's position or they can be negative, aimed at harming others. This paper develops a theoretical framework to examine when employees engage in more challenge- vs. threat-oriented behaviors. We argue that an important question how employees react to status threat is its temporal proximity—will an employee's status be threatened in the near versus distal future? We propose that the more distal (vs. proximate) the status threat is, the more employees gravitate towards challenge- and less threat-oriented behaviors. But how do employees know when a status threat occurs in the future? We argue that employees will compare their past status trajectories to co-workers’ status trajectories to mentally extrapolate the temporal proximity of such a threat. More specifically, we propose five characteristics (temporal markers) of social comparison trajectories that inform employees about the temporal proximity: their relative current position, the relative velocity and acceleration of their status trajectory, their relative mean status level, and their relative minimum and maximum status. Moreover, we suggest that employees’ conclusions from these markers are weakened by uncertainty in the “data stream” of social comparison information over time, that is, the length of the time span available, the amount of interruptions in this data stream, and the number of fluctuations in their own and others’ status trajectories.

The effects of social-media based social comparison information and similarity mindsets on COVID-19 vaccination uptake cognitions.

Vaccine hesitancy—delays in vaccine uptake when one is readily available—is an important public health issue. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of psychosocial factors in influencing cognitions and behaviors related to vaccine uptake have been examined. Using an online sample of unvaccinated U.S. adults (N = 300), we examined the influence of COVID-19-related social media-based comparison information (e.g., others’ attitudes about taking the vaccine)—as well as the moderating impact of (dis)similarity mindsets and indirect influence of affective associations, norm perceptions, and self-evaluations of efficacy—on vaccination uptake intentions. Participants reported higher intentions for vaccine uptake following exposure to cautious comparison models (e.g., those that engaged in health prevention behaviors, intended to get vaccinated) versus risky comparison models (e.g., those who did not engage in health prevention behaviors, did not intend to get vaccinated) and neutral comparison models and this effect was indirect through positive affective associations about taking the vaccine. There were no main or interactive effects of (dis)similarity mindsets. Understanding the psychosocial factors that influence health cognitions and behaviors in the context of an infectious disease pandemic will advance theoretical development and aid in creating interventions targeting vaccine uptake.

Associations of self-repression with disordered eating and symptoms of other psychopathologies for men and women

BackgroundDisordered eating has been found to be associated with constructs involving self-repression, such as selflessness (the tendency to relinquish one’s needs for others’), and concern for appropriateness (an alertness to information about social comparison and tendency to vary one’s behavior in different social situations). This study aimed to examine associations between these self-repression variables and symptoms of general psychopathology for women and men in a community sample.MethodsTwo hundred and thirty-six participants (92 men) aged 18–76 (M = 29.11 ± 10.10) volunteered to complete online measures of disordered eating, concern for appropriateness (cross-situational variability and attention to social comparison information), selflessness, and symptoms of depression, anxiety and somatization. Structural equation models were built to assess pathways between the study variables for men and women separately.ResultsA MANOVA 2*7 design showed that women scored significantly higher than men on measures of selflessness, disordered eating and depression. For men, selflessness scores were positively and significantly associated only with depression scores. Cross-situational variability scores were positively associated with depression, somatization and anxiety scores. For women, selflessness scores were positively and significantly associated with depression, disordered eating, somatization and anxiety scores. Cross-situational variability scores were positively and significantly associated with depression, anxiety and somatization scores but not with disordered eating scores. Attention to Social Comparison Information scores were positively and significantly associated only with disordered eating scores.ConclusionsSelf-repression is more closely linked to psychopathology in women than in men. For men, self-suppression seems to be associated with symptoms of internalizing disorders, but not disordered eating. Even for women, it appears that self-repression is not connected exclusively with disordered eating, but with symptoms of psychopathology in general. Future research should explore why self-suppression plays such a central role in women’s psychopathology.

Stepping Up: An Evaluation of Social Comparison of Physical Activity During Fitbit Challenges.

The current set of within-subject, single-case design studies examined how exposure to social comparison information may impact physical activity in sedentary individuals. In Study 1, participants (N = 6) were exposed to two Fitbit challenges, one with a physically active confederate and another with a sedentary confederate. Each challenge phase lasted 7 days, during which participants were able to compare their daily steps to the assigned confederate on a ranked leaderboard, received notifications if their cumulative steps were surpassed by the confederate, and a notification indicating if they won at the conclusion of each challenge (i.e., active confederate in challenge one then sedentary confederate in challenge two, or vice versa). Study 2 replicated the procedures used in Study 1 but controlled for the distance between confederate and participant daily steps (N = 4). In Study 3, participants (N = 4) were exposed to the same confederate twice to evaluate potential order effects. Results showed that physical activity increased for most participants, but the direction and magnitude of effects differed across participants, challenge type, and order of confederate exposure. The factors producing differential responding to the Fitbit challenges, and the implications for future research on the effects of competition and social comparison on behavior, are discussed.

In the context of a sports match, the goal to win is most important, right? Suggestive evidence for a hierarchical achievement goal system

When evaluating one’s own or others’ performances, there is a strong tendency to rely on social comparison information. Remarkably, however, the extant achievement goal research suggests that the prevalence of other-based goals is very low, also in sport contexts. In the present research, we argue and demonstrate that in the context of a sports match: (1) most athletes’ overarching achievement goal is an other-based approach goal (i.e., the goal to win), and (2) athletes with an overarching other-based approach goal also rely on self-based criteria (referring to one’s personal performance trajectory) and task-based criteria (referring to the absolute demands of the task). Survey data was collected among 647 competitive korfball players (69.4% women), ranging in age from 16 to 56 years. As expected, for most athletes (51.6%), to win matches was their overarching achievement goal, and pursuing self-based and task-based approach goals added to their competence satisfaction. In such a hierarchical achievement goal system, subordinate goals likely help athletes to increase their awareness of what actions and means facilitate their focal objective: Coming out victorious.

Turbocharging Social Comparison Information: Experimental Evidence on Residential Energy and Water Use

Turbocharging Social Comparison Information: Experimental Evidence on Residential Energy and Water Use

Social Comparison Information Influences Intentions to Reduce Single-Use Plastic Water Bottle Consumption.

Single-use plastic consumption is at an all-time high and threatens environmental and human health. College campuses in particular serve as a hub for single-use plastics due to their convenience for students on the go. The present research tests whether social comparison information can influence self-perceptions of single-use plastic consumption and motivate behavior change within the college campus environment. In a controlled experiment, we measured college students' existing plastic water bottle usage and gave them false feedback about their behaviors and relative standing to their classmates: participants in comparison conditions learned they were either above or below average in their plastic water bottle sustainability behaviors. Results indicated that (relative to a no-comparison control), being above average at water bottle sustainability led students to be more satisfied with their sustainability efforts. However, either kind of comparison information (i.e., being above or below average) led to greater behavioral intentions to reduce single-use plastic water bottle consumption in the future. This study highlights how comparison information can be used to motivate sustainable behavior change with regards to single-use plastics.

Examining when and how perceived sustainability-related climate influences pro-environmental behaviors of tourism destination residents in China

Scholarly interest in the pro-environmental behaviors of local residents in tourism destination has begun to emerge. While the research is beginning to shed light on the predictors of local residents' pro-environmental behaviors, the circumstances and the influencing mechanisms of predictors on pro-environmental behaviors is incomplete. From the perspective of the destination-specific situational antecedent, this study develops a Stimulus-Organism-Response (S–O-R) framework to examine the effect of perceived sustainability-related climate on residents' pro-environmental behaviors and further investigate the boundary condition and underlying mechanisms of this relationship. The approach of this study is deductive. Data from 652 residents in a Chinese tourism destination indicated that residents' perceived sustainability-related climate directly affects their engagement in pro-environmental behaviors. The above effect is stronger for residents who are highly valued attention to social comparison information. Furthermore, perceived sustainability-related climate also indirectly affects residents’ pro-environmental behaviors via environmental passion, perceived environmental responsibility, and environmental commitment. This study offers a new research perspective from the situational antecedent and provides insights and implications for destination managers to promote the destination sustainability.

The Brand Sustainability Obstacle: Viewpoint Incompatibility and Consumer Boycott

Brand equity is critical for brand sustainability. Companies participate in social issues to maintain brand equity by making the brand easily recognizable, superior in quality, and favored and affirmed by consumers. However, the ideological incompatibility between a brand and consumers may induce the consumers to adopt boycott action, which is an obstacle to brand sustainability. Before adopting boycott action, consumers consider the opinions of themselves and those of others. The opinion incompatibility between consumers is an influential factor for the consumers’ boycott intention, while individuals’ Attention to Social Comparison Information (ATSCI) is a moderate factor. This article conducted three studies that explored the influence of ideological incompatibility and ATSCI on boycott intention. Study 1 and Study 2 conducted an online and an offline experimental design to investigate the consumers’ boycott intention when a brand holds a different view from consumers on a debatable issue—same-sex marriage. Study 3 focused on the influence of ideological incompatibility between consumers and their relatives and friends regarding boycott intention. Individuals’ ATSCI is considered as a moderate factor. Based on these three empirical studies, we conclude that when a brand takes a stand on a debatable issue, it may be taking risks for brand sustainability since some consumers might boycott it because of ideological incompatibility. High ATSCI individuals may choose to follow the opinions of others and change their boycott intention.

Social comparison information, performance expectancy, and performance goal adoption.

Social comparison information, performance expectancy, and performance goal adoption.

A Self‐Control Choice Paradigm Including Loss of Rewards: Effects of Amount of Experience of Larger‐Later Outcomes and Social Comparison Information1

AbstractThis study investigated whether factors that have been shown to affect self‐control choice in prior studies can also influence human self‐control choice in the “smaller‐sooner loss/larger‐later gain–smaller‐sooner gain/larger‐later loss (Sl/Lg–Sg/Ll) paradigm”. Two experiments were conducted among Japanese undergraduate students to examine the effects of the length of delay and amount of experience of larger‐later gains and losses (Experiment 1) and social comparison information (Experiment 2) on self‐control choice. Self‐control choice became more frequent as the amount of experience of larger‐later gains and losses increased and became more frequent with social comparison information. These results suggest that the amount of experience of larger‐later outcomes and availability of social comparison information promote self‐control choice.