Social Cognitive Constructs Research Articles

Multicomponent, home-based resistance training for obese adults with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial

To investigate whether a home-based resistance training (RT) program that supplied high-quality equipment and qualified exercise specialists could provide benefits to obese patients with type 2 diabetes. A total of 48 obese individuals with type 2 diabetes were randomly assigned to either an RT (n=27) or a control group (n=21). Those in the RT group received a multigym and dumbbells and performed RT 3 days per week for 16 weeks at home. A qualified exercise specialist supervised training, with supervision being gradually decreased throughout the study. Primary outcome measures included strength and hemoglobin-A1C, whereas secondary outcome measures included other cardiovascular risk markers, key social-cognitive constructs and health-related quality of life. Intention-to-treat analyses indicated a significant increase in upper and lower body strength for the RT group compared with controls (20-37% mean increases in the RT group). No significant reduction in A1C levels was observed. The RT group had unchanged high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in comparison to declines in the control group. Significant reductions in fasting insulin, and increases in RT-related self-efficacy and intentions, were also observed in the RT group. Supervised home-based RT with high-quality equipment was effective for improving strength, along with other secondary outcomes in obese patients with type 2 diabetes.

Sense of agency and mentalizing: Dissociation of subdomains of social cognition in patients with schizophrenia

The sense of agency, i.e., the sense that “I am the one who is causing an action”, and mentalizing, the ability to understand the mental states of other individuals, are key domains of social cognition. It has been hypothesized that an intact sense of agency is an important precondition for higher-level mentalizing abilities. A substantial body of evidence shows that both processes rely on similar brain areas and are severely impaired in schizophrenia, suggesting a close link between agency and mentalizing. Yet this relationship has not been explicitly tested. We investigated 40 individuals with schizophrenia and 40 healthy controls on an agency and mentalizing task. On the agency task, participants carried out simple mouse movements and judged the partially manipulated visual feedback as either self- or other-generated. On the mentalizing task, participants inferred mental states from pictures that depicted others' eyes (“Reading the mind in the eyes test”). Neuropsychological, psychopathological and social functioning levels were also evaluated. Both sense of agency and mentalizing were impaired in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy controls. However, testing for a relationship revealed no significant correlations between the two processes, either in the schizophrenia or the control group. The present findings demonstrate a dissociation of agency and mentalizing deficits in schizophrenia, suggesting that the multifaceted construct of social cognition consists of independent subdomains in healthy and psychiatrically ill individuals.

Social Cognitive Correlates of Drive for Muscularity and Resistance Exercise Participation

Drive for muscularity (DM) is becoming increasingly prevalent among young men. DM has been linked with increased resistance exercise (RE) participation and use of dietary supplements. However, given that DM has also been associated with maladaptive health-related attitudes and behaviors, identifying the correlates of DM may aid in developing interventions that promote healthy exercise and dietary habits in men characterized by heightened disposition towards DM. Psychological factors have been proposed as one of the primary factors influencing the formation of DM. Although social cognitive variables are well-established correlates of exercise behavior, knowledge of the social cognitive correlates of DM remains limited. PURPOSE: The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the social cognitive correlates of DM in young men. METHODS: A sample of 112 men (M age = 21.56 years) completed assessments of DM, strenuous RE participation, self-efficacy for RE (SE), and satisfaction with physical function (SPF) and physical appearance (SPA). RESULTS: Results of bivariate correlation analyses revealed that SE (r =.20, p < 0.05), SPF (r = -.25, p < 0.01), SPA (r = -.19, p < 0.05), and RE (r =.20, p < 0.05) were significantly related to the attitudinal component of DM. Additionally, SE (r =.54, p < 0.01), SPF (r =.32, p < 0.01), SPA (r =.31, p < 0.01), and RE (r =.62, p < 0.01) were significantly correlated with the behavioral component of DM. Finally, RE was significantly correlated with each social cognitive construct that was assessed. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that social cognitive variables are significantly related to both the attitudinal and behavioral components of DM. The results also indicate that: (a) select social cognitive variables such as RE-related SE judgments and satisfaction with muscular function and appearance are more strongly related to the behavioral component of DM; and (b) satisfaction with appearance and function are inversely related with the attitudinal component of DM and positively correlated with the behavioral component of DM. These findings may have important implications for the design of interventions intended to promote healthy RE, dietary, and body image practices among young men.

SOCIAL COGNITION AND FUNCTIONAL OUTCOME AS SEPARATE DOMAINS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

Background: Deficits in social cognition are recognised as an important feature of schizophrenia, mainly due to their close association with poor functional outcome. Impaired functioning in the domains of processing of emotions and interpretation of behaviour of others in the social milieu appears to impact functional outcome in individuals with schizophrenia. Impairments in cognition generally cooccur in these individuals and the magnitudes of deficits in social cognition and cognition are usually strongly associated. Furthermore, whereas cognitive deficits reportedly account for 10%-40% of the variance in functional outcome, social cognition has been shown to have a unique relationship to functional outcome, beyond that of cognitive function. In otherwords, social cognitionmay be amediating factor through which cognition impacts functional outcome. However, both social cognition and functional outcome are broad constructs encompassing multiple abilities. The fact that there is a wide range of measures used to test the above domains further complicates an understanding of the association between social cognition and functional outcome. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factorial validity of social cognitive constructs against that of functional outcome in schizophrenia. Methods: The subjects were 103 individuals with schizophrenia. Facial Emotion Identification Test (FEIT), the Facial Emotion Discrimination Test (FEDT), the Social Cue Recognition Test (SCRT) and the Situational Features Recognition Test (SFRT) were used as measures of social cognition. Cognitive tests were chosen in order to assess a wide range of cognitive domains and were consistent with batteries generally used in the schizophrenia literature. Functional outcome was assessed using two measures: the Quality of Life Scale (QLS) and the Social Functioning Scale (SFS). The Assessment of Interpersonal Problem Solving (AIPPS) scale, which consists of three subscales, was used as a measure of social problem solving. Symptoms were assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS). Results: Using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation all social cognitive tasks (i.e. FAIT, FADT, SCRT and SFRT) loaded on factor 1 (SOC COG), all three AIPPS sub-scales loaded on factor 2 (SOCPROBLEM), andbothSFS andQLS loadedon factor 3 (SOC FUNCTION). SOC COG was significantly associated with cognition (r=.54, p<0.001) and with positive (r=-.28, p<0.01) and negative symptoms (r=-.23, p<0.5). SOC PROBLEM was associated with positive (r=-.22, p<0.05) andnegative symptoms (r=-.26, p<0.05) andSOCFUNCTIONwas significantlyassociatedwithpositive (r=-.47, p<0.001) and negative symptoms (r=-.54, p<0.001). Discussion: The factor analysis clearly suggests that social cognition and social functioning are separate constructs. Interestingly a measure of social problem solving that has been at times considered a measure of functioning was differentiated from both social cognition and social functioning. Social cognition was the only factor that was significantly associated with cognition suggesting cognitive underpinning to social perception, social knowledge, and the ability to recognise affect in others. Further, all three factors correlated with both positive and negative symptoms suggesting that interpretation and evaluation of events in the social environment as well as social interactions in schizophrenia may depend on the level of psychotic symptoms.

Physical Activity in Middle-aged and Young-old Adults

This study tests the associations of self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, perceived barriers, self-regulatory behaviors and social support with physical activity. Data from 116 married community-dwelling middle-aged and young-old couples (M = 58.86 years, SD = 7.16, range = 50 to 75) were collected via mail-in survey. The model indicated that self-efficacy was directly and indirectly related to physical activity through outcome expectancies, perceived barriers and self-regulatory behaviors. The results clarify the associations among the social cognitive constructs and physical activity, and suggest that interventions targeting multiple social cognitive constructs could increase the activity levels of middle-aged and young-old adults.

The Effect of Context Processing on Different Aspects of Social Cognition in Schizophrenia

It is well known that individuals with schizophrenia have impaired social cognition. The construct of social cognition involves several components, including perception, interpretation, and the ability to integrate context (Adolphs R. The neurobiology of social cognition. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2001;11:231-239; Brothers L. The social brain: a project for integrating primate behavior and neurophysiology in a new domain. Concepts Neurosci. 1990;1:27-61). Importantly, a number of studies have suggested that deficits in context processing underlie cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia (Penn DL, Corrigan PW, Bentall RP, Racenstein JM, Newman L. Social cognition in schizophrenia. Psychol Bull. 1997;121(1):114-132; Green MF, Nuechterlein KH. Should schizophrenia be treated as a neurocognitive disorder? Schizophr Bull. 1999;25:309-319). Thus, the purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between context processing and different aspects of social cognition in schizophrenia. Individuals with schizophrenia (n = 41) and the healthy controls (n = 32) participated in this study. The participants completed 2 sections of The Awareness of Social Inference Test: (1) social inference minimal (SI-M) and (2) social inference enriched (SI-E). They also completed face and voice emotion discrimination tasks. In addition, we used the AX-Continuous Performance Test (AX-CPT) to measure context processing and the n-back task to measure working memory more generally. AX-CPT performance in schizophrenia was positively correlated with both SI-M and SI-E performance but not with either the face or the voice discrimination. Furthermore, the correlation between AX-CPT performance and SI-M/SI-E performance was significantly stronger in individuals with schizophrenia than in controls. These results suggest that impairments in context processing are related to inferential components of social cognition in schizophrenia but not to the ability to recognition facial or vocal emotion. As such, deficits in context processing may contribute to deficits in both "hot" and "cold" aspects of cognition in schizophrenia.

An internet tool to normalize grief.

This research evaluated the efficacy of a psycho-educational Internet self-help tool to educate and support recently (1-6 months) bereaved individuals. The goal of the website was to help users normalize their grief to enhance their adaptive adjustment. A randomized controlled trial evaluated the gains in social cognitive theory constructs and state anxiety. Compared to the control group (N = 34), treatment participants (N = 33) reported significant multivariate gains (eta-square = .191). Significant program effects were obtained on all three outcome measures: attitude (eta-square = .177), self-efficacy (eta-square = .106), and state anxiety (eta-square = .083). These findings suggest the potential efficacy of an Internet-based grief support tool to enhance adaptive adjustment of the bereaved.

The development of scales for assessing social cognitive constructs relating to physical activity participation in adolescents

The development of scales for assessing social cognitive constructs relating to physical activity participation in adolescents

Using Social Cognitive Theory to Predict Obesity Prevention Behaviors among Preadolescents in India

Commonly suggested public health strategies to combat adolescent obesity are encouraging daily physical activity, limiting television viewing, replacing sweetened beverage consumption with water, and increasing fruit and vegetable intake. This study examined the extent to which selected social cognitive theory constructs can predict these four behaviors among preadolescents in India. A 55-item valid and reliable scale was administered to 324 fifth graders. The significant predictor of physical activity was number of times taught at school (p < or = 0.008). None of the Social Cognitive theory variables were found to be significant predictors for numbers of hours of watching TV or drinking water instead of sweetened beverages. In the case of fruit and vegetable consumption, the significant predictor was self-efficacy to eat five or more servings of fruits and vegetables (p < 0.0001). The study discusses ways Social Cognitive theory can be bolstered to influence adolescent obesity behaviors in India.

The art of grocery shopping on a food stamp budget: factors influencing the food choices of low-income women as they try to make ends meet

Amidst a hunger-obesity paradox, the purpose of the present study was to examine the grocery shopping behaviour and food stamp usage of low-income women with children to identify factors influencing their food choices on a limited budget. Focus groups, which included questions based on Social Cognitive Theory constructs, examined food choice in the context of personal, behavioural and environmental factors. A quantitative grocery shopping activity required participants to prioritize food purchases from a 177-item list on a budget of $US 50 for a one-week period, an amount chosen based on the average household food stamp allotment in 2005. Ninety-two low-income women, with at least one child aged 9-13 years in their household, residing in the Twin Cities, Minnesota, USA. Participants' mean age was 37 years, and 76% were overweight or obese (BMI> or =25.0 kg/m2). Key findings suggest that their food choices and grocery shopping behaviour were shaped by not only individual and family preferences, but also their economic and environmental situation. Transportation and store accessibility were major determinants of shopping frequency, and they used various strategies to make their food dollars stretch (e.g. shopping based on prices, in-store specials). Generally, meat was the most important food group for purchase and consumption, according to both the qualitative and quantitative data. Efforts to improve food budgeting skills, increase nutrition knowledge, and develop meal preparation strategies involving less meat and more fruits and vegetables, could be valuable in helping low-income families nutritionally make the best use of their food dollars.

A comparison of physical activity-related social-cognitive factors between those with type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes and diabetes free adults

Despite strong evidence supporting the benefits of physical activity in managing and preventing diabetes, the majority of Canadians living with or without diabetes are insufficiently active to achieve health benefits. The purpose of this study was to examine the difference in key physical activity-related, psychosocial constructs from major social-cognitive theories/models for individuals with type 1 diabetes (n = 695), type 2 diabetes (n = 1540) and those without diabetes (n = 829). The relatively similar scores reported for the social-cognitive constructs between the groups suggest that theoretically driven, generic population-based strategies operationalizing key socio-cognitive constructs for promoting physical activity may have utility for the general and diabetes specific populations. However, both diabetes groups reported significantly lower (p < 0.001) response efficacy (benefits of physical activity) scores, and higher scores for cons of performing physical activity than the non-diabetes group (p < 0.001). Further, the type 1 diabetes group had significantly higher (p < 0.05) physical activity cons scores than the other two study groups. The findings of this study may guide practitioners in designing population-based, physical activity programs that capitalize on generic strategies for the general and diabetes populations, and identify efforts as to where specific tailoring (e.g. emphasizing physical activity benefits) is needed for those living with diabetes.

Social Cognitive Determinants of Moderate and Vigorous Physical Activity in College Freshmen

This paper examined the relationship among social cognitive factors and physical activity in college freshmen. Students from a midwestern university (N = 69; 56.5% female) participated in this prospective study. Psychosocial data were collected at the beginning of a semester, and physical activity measurement by accelerometry was completed at semester's end. Multiple regression analyses indicated that self‐efficacy and physical activity goals were significant predictors of vigorous activity (r2 = .16). However, these constructs were not significant for moderate activity (r2 = .16). Social cognitive constructs appear to be related to vigorous, but not moderate activity in college freshmen. Future studies should consider assessing social cognitive and physical activity variables at multiple time points across extended durations.

Correlates of physical activity among lung cancer survivors.

Lung cancer survivors commonly experience impairments in quality of life, which may be improved through regular physical activity. However, little is known regarding correlates of physical activity in this survivor population. The current study addressed this research gap. The participants were 175 survivors of early-stage non-small cell lung cancer who completed surgical treatment from 1 to 6 years previously. Information regarding medical factors was obtained from chart records and from participant self-report. Participants also answered questions about demographic and social cognitive factors that may be associated with physical activity, which was assessed as reported engagement in moderate/strenuous activities and leisurely walking. Participants reported an average of 77.7 min of moderate/strenuous weekly activity and 64.6% reported engaging in leisurely walking at least three times per week. Less leisurely walking was reported by older individuals (p=0.001) and those with a lower education level (p<0.001), who also reported less engagement in moderate/strenuous activities (p=0.004). Individuals with poorer pre-operative pulmonary function reported less moderate/strenuous physical activity (p=0.014) and the number of surgical complications was inversely associated with leisurely walking (p=0.003). Multiple social cognitive constructs were associated with moderate/strenuous activity and leisurely walking. The study identified several lung cancer survivor subgroups who may be most in need of physical activity interventions. Identification of social cognitive correlates of physical activity provides valuable information regarding theory-guided constructs that should be targeted in future physical activity interventions for lung cancer survivors.

The Development and Initial Validation of Social Cognitive Career Theory Instruments to Measure Choice of Medical Specialty and Practice Location

Social cognitive career theory served as the basis for the instrument development for scales assessing self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals to predict medical career choice. Lent and Brown's conceptualization of social cognitive constructs guided the development of items to measure choice of medical specialty and practice location. Study 1 involved four stages: identification of attitudes and beliefs, generation of scale items, evaluation of scale items by experts, and a pilot study. The pilot study tested the item pool with 293 medical students and allowed item and exploratory factor analyses. Study 2 administered the scales to a second sample of 499 medical students. Confirmatory factor analysis assessed consistency and validity, and identified six psychometrically sound instruments. Initial validity for the scales was found encouraging, with further testing of these measures expected to support their use. Implications for use in research are discussed.

Predicting the Physical Activity Intention–Behavior Profiles of Adopters and Maintainers Using Three Social Cognition Models

Most of the population have positive intentions to engage in physical activity (PA) but fail to act; thus, the need to understand successful translation of intention into behavior is warranted in order to focus intervention efforts. The objective of the study is to examine constructs of the transtheoretical model, theory of planned behavior, and protection motivation theory as predictors of physical activity intention-behavior profiles across 6 months in a Canadian workplace sample. Employees from three large organizations in the province of Alberta (n = 887) completed a baseline survey relating to their demographic and medical background, PA, and social-cognitive constructs. A total of 611 participants completed a second assessment 6 months later. Participants were grouped by five profiles: nonintenders, unsuccessful adopters, successful adopters, unsuccessful maintainers, and successful maintainers. Perceived importance and concern for PA (cognitive processes, instrumental attitude, perceived severity) distinguished nonintenders from the other four profiles, self-management and self-regulation of the behavior (behavioral processes, self-efficacy) distinguished successful adopters from unsuccessful adopters, while control over constraints (cons, perceived control, self-efficacy) were the key discriminators of successful maintainers from unsuccessful maintainers. The results provide useful information for intervention campaigns and demonstrate a need to consider adoption and maintenance profiles.

Can social cognitive theory constructs explain socio-economic variations in adolescent eating behaviours? A mediation analysis

Adolescents of low socio-economic position (SEP) are less likely than those of higher SEP to consume diets in line with current dietary recommendations. The reasons for these SEP variations remain poorly understood. We investigated the mechanisms underlying socio-economic variations in adolescents' eating behaviours using a theoretically derived explanatory model. Data were obtained from a community-based sample of 2529 adolescents aged 12-15 years, from 37 secondary schools in Victoria, Australia. Adolescents completed a web-based survey assessing their eating behaviours, self-efficacy for healthy eating, perceived importance of nutrition and health, social modelling and support and the availability of foods in the home. Parents provided details of maternal education level, which was used as an indicator of SEP. All social cognitive constructs assessed mediated socio-economic variations in at least one indicator of adolescents' diet. Cognitive factors were the strongest mediator of socio-economic variations in fruit intakes, while for energy-dense snack foods and fast foods, availability of energy-dense snacks at home tended to be strong mediators. Social cognitive theory provides a useful framework for understanding socio-economic variations in adolescent's diet and might guide public health programmes and policies focusing on improving adolescent nutrition among those experiencing socio-economic disadvantage.

Making mirrors: sensorimotor experience directs activation of the mirror system (Commentary on Catmur et al.)

Watch your favorite athlete take a shot for the goal, or your favorite actor lean in for a kiss, and chances are that some of the same neurons that would be active if you were performing that action are firing as well. These mirror neurons – neurons in premotor and parietal cortex that fire both when an animal performs a goal-directed action and when observing such actions – provide a link between representations of the other and selfrepresentations (di Pellegrino et al., 1992). Along with their proximity to Broca’s area, this has led to the suggestion that the mirror system is fundamental for the development of language and complex social-cognitive constructs including empathy and theory of mind (Iacoboni & Dapretto, 2006). But how does the mirror system acquire its reflective properties? Are the patterns it shows in response to observing a particular movement pre-set by evolution, or the product of experience? In this issue, Catmur et al. address this question by using fMRI to assess activation patterns within the mirror system after sensorimotor training. They first trained participants to either flex their hand when they saw a picture of a flexed hand and flex their foot in response to the picture of a flexed foot (Compatible condition), or to reverse their responses (Incompatible condition; flex hand in response to foot picture and vice versa). Following training, participants were scanned while simply observing pictures of flexed hands or feet, while themselves remaining stationary. The results show that the mirror system can be trained: Areas that showed greater activity to hand-action displays for the Compatible group showed greater reactivity to foot-action displays in the Incompatible group. Both groups showed stronger activations for the stimuli that predicted performance of the hand action, suggesting some pre-existing bias towards the representation of such actions. However, the critical finding is that the mirror system’s mapping to which stimuli predicted such movements was flexible, showing a complete reversal after only 3 days of training. It appears that the representations linking others’ actions and our own within the mirror system are not hardwired, but instead are easily changed. Is the mirroring system truly unique, or more properly seen as a special case of experience-based associations? Is the urge to make a kick while watching a player do so during a televised game that different from ‘feeling it in your bones’ when you visit the soccer field you frequented in your youth? The results of Catmur et al. suggest that it may not be: In both cases mirror neurons may be responding to the experienced relationship between those cues and the motor programs you have used during a game. The links between the mirror system and more traditional learning and memory principles have important implications. As described above, the mirror system is thought to be fundamental to empathy and social cognition, and disruptions in it may be related to autism, schizophrenia, and other disorders. The possibility of a trainable mirror system opens the door to treatments that ‘iron out’ such distortions.

Using Social Cognitive Theory to Predict Physical Activity in Inner-City African American School Children

Researchers using social cognitive theory and employing built environment constructs to predict physical activity (PA) in inner-city African American children is quite limited. Thus, the purpose of our investigation was to evaluate the ability of important social cognitive variables (e.g., self-efficacy) and built environment constructs (e.g., neighborhood hazards) to predict African American children's PA. Children (N = 331, ages 10-14) completed questionnaires assessing social cognitive theory constructs and PA. Using multiple regression analyses we were able to account for 19% of the variance in PA. Based on standardized beta weights, the best predictors of PA were time spent outside and social support derived from friends. These findings illuminate the valuable role of PA support from peers, as well as the simple act of going outside for inner-city African American children.

Social cognitive theory variables mediation of moderate exercise.

To identify the degree to which the social cognitive theory constructs targeted by the Planning to Be Active Program (PBA) were mediators of moderate-intensity exercise. High school students in treatment and comparison groups received activity-based physical education. The treatment group also received PBA, which develops self-regulation skills to promote leisure-time exercise. PBA increased self-regulation scores, social situation scores, and moderate-intensity exercise. Self-regulation and social situation mediated moderate-intensity exercise at posttest. As mediators, self-regulation and social situation help explain how PBA produces increases in moderate-intensity exercise.

Social-Cognitive Predictors of College Student Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Background: Little research has addressed the prevalence and predictors of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use among undergraduate students. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to: (1) measure the prevalence and type of CAM use among a sample of college undergraduates, and (2) test the significance of select social-cognitive constructs and demographics as predictors of CAM use among a college population. Methods: A random sample of undergraduate students within the Texas A&M University system was solicited via e-mail to complete a web-based survey. Results: Findings show high rates of CAM use. Gender, attitude toward CAM, outcome expectancies regarding the health care encounter, and social network use of CAM were shown to be significant predictors of CAM use. Discussion: CAM use is popular among college students. Results from this study can inform health care and health education professionals interested in improving health care processes and addressing positive and negative issues related to CAM use. Translation to Health Education Practice: Health educators should be prepared to present CAM as health care options and discuss benefits and risks associated with CAM therapies. Researchers should continue to explore the psychosocial determinants of CAM use as a guide for health education and intervention.