Smoky River Research Articles

Impacts of future climate on the hydrology of a northern headwaters basin and its implications for a downstream deltaic ecosystem

AbstractAnthropogenic and climatic‐induced changes to flow regimes pose significant risks to river systems. Northern rivers and their deltas are particularly vulnerable due to the disproportionate warming of the Northern Hemisphere compared with the Southern Hemisphere. Of special interest is the Peace–Athabasca Delta (PAD) in western Canada, a productive deltaic lake and wetland ecosystem, which has been recognized as a Ramsar site. Both climate‐ and regulation‐induced changes to the hydrological regime of the Peace River have raised concerns over the delta's ecological health. With the damming of the headwaters, the role of downstream unregulated tributaries has become more important in maintaining, to a certain degree, a natural flow regime, particularly during open‐water conditions. However, their flow contributions to the mainstem river under future climatic conditions remain largely uncertain. In this study, we first evaluated the ability of a land‐surface hydrological model to simulate hydro‐ecological relevant indicators, highlighting the model's strengths and weaknesses. Then, we investigated the streamflow conditions in the Smoky River, the largest unregulated tributary of the Peace River, in the 2071–2100 versus the 1981–2010 periods. Our modelling results revealed significant changes in the hydrological regime of the Smoky River, such as increased discharge in winter (+190%) and spring (+130%) but reduced summer flows (−33%) in the 2071–2100 period compared with the baseline period, which will have implications for the sustainability of the downstream PAD. In particular, the projected reductions in 30‐day and 90‐day maximum flows in the Smoky River will affect open‐water flooding, which is important in maintaining lake levels and connectivity to perimeter delta wetlands in the Peace sector of the PAD. The evaluation of breakup and freeze‐up flows for the 2071–2100 period showed mixed implications for the ice‐jam flooding, which is essential for recharging high‐elevation deltaic basins. Thus, despite projected increase in annual and spring runoff in the 2071–2100 period from the Smoky sub‐basin, the sustainability of the PAD still remains uncertain.

Late-Drought Survey of Freshwater Mussels in the Upper Saline and Smoky Hill Rivers with Emphasis on the Status of the Cylindrical Papershell (Anodontoides ferussacianus)

The Cylindrical Papershell (Anodontoides ferussacianus), considered a “Species in Need of Conservation” in Kansas, historically occurred across much of the state; however, recent studies suggest that the species is currently restricted to the upper Smoky Hill-Saline River Basin, and a survey emphasizing the status of the Cylindrical Papershell conducted in 2011 suggested its conservation status be elevated to endangered. Continuing drought since the completion of the 2011 survey raised concerns regarding the status of the Cylindrical Papershell. The objectives of this study were to evaluate possible drought-related changes in Cylindrical Papershell populations and to evaluate the status of this species in Kansas. Timed, tactile searches were conducted at 19 sites on the Saline River and 21 sites on the Smoky Hill River between July and August 2015. Thirty of these sites were revisited from the 2011 survey. In 2011, 24 live Cylindrical Papershell were observed among 11 sites. Declines in Cylindrical Papers...

Combining k-nearest-neighbor models for annual peak breakup flow forecasting

In practice, water resources managers and river forecasters often face the problem in identifying from the historical record years that show a similar pattern of weather and river conditions as the current year is following. The k-nearest neighbor (kNN) algorithm is such a type of machine learning method, where no assumptions on the dataset distributions are made, but a minimal (no explicit) training stage is required. This is especially useful in river ice forecasting where weather and river condition indicators often do not obey the typical theoretical assumptions; the complex river ice mechanisms are difficult to directly quantify. However, few applications of kNN to river ice studies have been reported. Since the predictive performance of a single kNN is limited, we combine multiple KNN models (first-level) based on different numbers of inputs which are linearly or nonlinearly correlated to annual peak breakup flow (APBF); we use both simple average methods and kNN models as combining models (second-level), and we apply the kNN-based combination models to APBF forecasting of the Smoky River at Watino, Canada. The Mahalanobis distance is chosen in kNN since neither the standardization of input variables nor the assignments of weights to variables are required. The historical breakup data at this site for the past 33years (1980 to 2012) were collected to facilitate the performance comparison of models. The results show that both training and validation performances of the combining models are substantially better than those of member models. The proposed framework can be potentially applied to various forecasting problems in water resources management practice.

Stratigraphy of the Bad Heart Formation, Clear Hills and Smoky River areas, Alberta

Abstract The Upper Cretaceous (mid to late Coniacian) Bad Heart Formation consists of a ‘coarser’ clastic succession (i.e. comprised of sandstone and ooidal ironstone with lesser conglomerate and siltstone) that typically is about 5 to 15 m thick and exists within a much thicker shale succession. The Bad Heart Formation has long been of potential economic interest because in the eastern Clear Hills region it hosts the thickest and most regionally extensive ooidal ironstone deposit in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. McLearn subdivided the Smoky River Group (then referred to by him as a formation) on a lithostratigraphic basis into three ‘members’: that is, “a lower shale [Kaskapau Formation], a middle sandstone — the ‘Bad Heart Sandstone’ [now a formation], and an upper shale [Puskwaskau Formation]”, with the type section for Bad Heart Formation being near the intersection of the Smoky and Bad Heart rivers. The data from this study have refined the previously published stratigraphic models, on a sequence stratigraphic basis, whereby three sequences encompass lithostratigraphic components of the uppermost Kaskapau, the entire Bad Heart and lowermost Puskwuskau formations. Each of the three sequences are underlain by a transgressive wave-ravinement surface. The two lower sequences are fully developed within the studied interval, each comprising a transgressive system tract that is overlain by a highstand system tract. The studied interval only includes the lower part of the uppermost sequence, represented by a transgressive system tract, based on the stratigraphic mapping herein. Finally, the palynology results from this study indicate there is an important change in the depositional environment across the lowermost wave-ravinement surface because the first appearance datum for the dinoflagellate Chatangiella sp. cf. C. spectabilis occurs abruptly above this wave-ravinement surface.

A high latitude euselachian assemblage from the early Turonian of Alberta, Canada

Numerous isolated euselachian teeth were recovered from the early Turonian Kaskapau Formation situated in northwestern Alberta, Canada. This high palaeolatitude assemblage was collected from a sandstone lens along the bank of the Smoky River, and includes 16 species belonging to at least three orders, at least 11 families, and 15 genera. Here we describe Odontaspis watinensis sp. nov. and report the first Canadian occurrence of Polyacrodus sp., Scapanorhynchus sp., and Carcharias aff. C. striatula. The scarcity of benthic taxa in this assemblage supports the previous notion that bottom waters in this region of the Western Interior Seaway experienced enduring anoxic episodes. By comparing the faunal composition of this assemblage with that of middle Cenomanian Canadian assemblages, we show that seven species have a biostratigraphical range that extended across the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary in the northern region of the seaway. Of the taxa described herein, Archaeolamna ex. gr. kopingensis, Cardabiodon aff. C. ricki, Carcharias aff. C. striatula, Odontaspis watinensis, and Johnlongia parvidens have not been reported from deposits of the southernmost region of the seaway and may have been restricted to cooler waters. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FD671818-2769-484C-B424-F5EF5490A6A9

A New Look at the Besant Phase in the Eastern Slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains

The Besant phase is a Late Middle Precontact culture lasting from ca. 2,200 to 1,200 years ago, and found throughout the northern Plains region. Although sites attributed to the Besant phase have been recorded in the Eastern Slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta since the 1960s, its presence there is not well understood. The conventional view of the Besant phase in Alberta is that it appears rarely in the Eastern Slopes, where it is confined to the foothills of the southern drainages. However, this model does not account for the growing number of sites found elsewhere in the Canadian Rocky Mountains over the last three decades. The present research uses a regional approach to document all known locations of Besant projectile points and sites recorded in the Eastern Slopes of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Archaeological data indicating that people affiliated with the Besant phase used the Eastern Slopes from the foothills to the main ranges, and from the Waterton River drainage to the Smoky River drainage are presented and evaluated. The results expand our understanding of the Besant culture and its adaptation to mountain regions.

A 9000-Year Old Wapiti (Cervus elaphus) Skeleton from Northern Alberta, and its Implications for the Early Holocene Environment

A complete and fully articulated adult male wapiti (Cervus elaphus) skeleton was recovered from the 50 m terrace of Smoky River, near Watino, Alberta. A collagen-based date on antler gave an age of 9075 ± 305 yr BP (S-2614). The local terrace sequence features three benches, and two previously described fossil sites are placed within it. The importance of the find is that it indicates an environment at 9000 yr BP similar to the present. A brief review of local deglaciation precedes discussion of the paleontology.

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of shoreface and fluvial conglomerates: insights from the Cardium Formation in NW Alberta and adjacent British Columbia

ABSTRACT In this paper we describe little-studied exposures of the Upper Cretaceous Cardium Formation in the northern Foothills and Peace River Plains, located north of Twp. 58. We correlate sixteen principal outcrop sections along the Foothills and across the northern escarpment of the Cardium as far east as the Smoky River. Correlations are based on tracing bounding erosion surfaces, initially observed in well logs and cores, and later extended into outcrop. The Kakwa Member is conglomeratic in many of these sections. The member displays a spectrum of conglomerate types, of both shallow marine and fluvial origin. Depositional environments are differentiated on the basis of stratigraphic context, conglomerate texture, sedimentary structures, stratification style and paleogeographic setting. We describe in detail four localities exemplifying the main paleoenvironments. At Bay Tree, a 12 m thick section consists primarily of clast-supported conglomerates representing a wave-dominated shoreface and beachface. This environment is dominated by broadly horizontal stratification with horizontal facies heterogeneity on a metre scale. At Cutbank Lake, swaley-stratified shoreface sandstones contain pebble-lined scours that show an upward increase in thickness and lateral continuity and represent rip current deposits. At Mount Niles, conglomerate forms a 2-6 m thick, >200 m wide, channelized body consisting of heterolithic matrix-supported conglomerates and pebbly sandstones capped by gravel wave ripples. Deposition may have been in a river-mouth setting. At 'Horseshoe Mountain', the upper part of the Kakwa Member consists of metre-scale crossbedded pebbly sandstone and matrix-supported conglomerate deposited in a pebbly fluvial system lacking marine influence. For the entire study area, paleocurrent observations indicate a strong NW to SE alongshore transport of gravel, with storm waves approaching from the NE. Fluvial crossbedding is directed towards the NE. Some of the outcrop facies can also be recognized in core from the adjacent subsurface. Our descriptions of conglomerate facies in outcrop facilitate interpretation of the depositional environment of comparable units in subsurface. Unfortunately, the limited extent of exposures does not allow us to determine with precision the geometry of conglomeratic units. However, a broad conglomerate-rich zone >90 km in dip extent and 10-20 km in strike extent can be traced across the northern outcrop belt and probably records the position of a major and long-lasting pebbly fluvial system. Subsurface analogs would be exploration fairways. At the reservoir scale, conglomerate bodies showing greater influence of wave reworking would tend to be more elongate, and have greater facies continuity/permeability, in a shore-parallel direction. The outcrops display lateral textural heterogeneity at scales of metres to 10s of metres. This heterogeneity would affect reservoir performance, but could not be captured (for reservoir modeling) using typical development well spacing. End_Page 437------------------------

Dissolved oxygen decline in ice-covered rivers of northern Alberta and its effects on aquatic biota

To determine whether existing dissolved oxygen (DO) regulationswere adequate to protect riverine biota, the Northern River Basins Studyrequired a research and assessment program to establish the effect ofpulp mill and municipal sewage discharges on under-ice DO concentrationsand aquatic biota in the Athabasca, Wapiti and Smoky rivers of northernAlberta, Canada. Analysis of monitoring data collected over >30 yearsshowed that pulp mill and municipal effluents have caused “sags” in DObelow their discharges and contributed to an increased rate of declinein DO over 10s of kilometers in the Wapiti-Smoky rivers or 100s ofkilometers in the Athabasca River. To permit forecasting of DO declinesin response to changes in river discharge or effluent biochemical oxygendemand (BOD), a one-dimensional steady-state river water quality modelwas implemented that successfully (r2 =0.74–0.92) predicted DO concentrations over an 820 km reach of theAthabasca River for the 1990–1994 winters. Experiments on nativefish and benthic macroinvertebrate species showed that exposure to lowDO and low temperatures (2–3°C) caused delays in hatch ofmountain whitefish eggs (at 6.5 mg/L DO), reduced mass of bull troutalevins post-hatch (at 5.0 mg/L DO), extended the spawning period ofburbot (at 6.0 mg/L DO), and depressed feeding rates and loweredsurvival of the mayfly Baetis tricaudatus (at 5 mg/L DO).As a result of recommendations from this integrated program of rivermonitoring, modelling and experimentation, effluent BOD loading has beenreduced to the Athabasca and Wapiti rivers and the provincial DOguideline for protection of aquatic life has been increased from 5.0 to6.5 mg/L.

Rock anchor support systems at Smoky River Coal Limited, Grande cache, Alberta: R. F. Dawson, A. S. Bagnall & K. Barron, CIM Bulletin, 88(992), 1995, pp 60–65

At Smoky River Coal Limited (SRCL), economic occurrences of structurally thickened coal deposits form attractive surface mining targets. These steeply dipping, structurally complex deposits require that special attention be given to pit wall design and operational practices. Where anchor support is feasible, there is potential for reducing footwall waste requirements and/or increasing coal recovery. SRCL has used rock anchors to support footwall slopes since 1985. This paper outlines design considerations and performance of rock anchor support systems at SRCL. Three case histories are included that illustrate the design process for supporting steeply dipping footwall slopes using rock anchors.

Combustion Reactivity of Smoky River Coal Mine By-Products

H. R. Milner Generating Station of Alberta Power Limited (145-MW capacity, down-shut firing mechanism of Combustion Engineering Ltd.) utilizes the by-products of the Smoky River coal (low-volatile bituminous) mine. These by-products are composed of run-of-mine, tailings, and rejects. High-ash, low-volatile matter content and low char combustion reactivity cause low carbon burnout and low flame stability, and high auxiliary fuel consumption. To improve combustion efficiency of the generating station, combustion reactivity tests were conducted using a thermo-gravimetric analyzer and a laminar drop tube reactor. In addition, the microscopic characteristics of the coal, bottom ash, and fly ash were also studied. Some of the chars formed from vitrinite, causing low combustion reactivity. Particle size, gas temperature, and oxygen partial pressure have an effect on the apparent rate of coal combustion. Char combustion rate is controlled by oxygen diffusion. Combustion efficiency could be improved by increasing ...

Preparation of activated carbon from Canadian coals using a fixed-bed reactor and a spouted bed-kiln system

Several western Canadian coals (Bienfait lignite, Roselyn, Montgomery, Atlas-Century and Egg Lake subbituminous coals, and Coal Valley and Smoky River bituminous coals) were activated with steam to produce granular activated carbons. Activation times and temperatures were 0.5–4.0 h and 650–850°C. The iodine number was used as a primary indicator of product quality. Activated carbons having iodine numbers of ≥ 500 mg g −1 carbon were produced from each coal except Smoky River. Bienfait lignite was found to be relatively reactive, the highest iodine number developed being 545 at a yield of 29 wt% and at 650°C. Products from Montgomery and Atlas-Century coals showed iodine numbers of 620 and 579 at yields of 36 and 37 wt% respectively, at 700°C. When activated at 650°C for 3 h, Roselyn coal gave a product with an iodine number of 730. The products from Coal Valley coal, the least reactive, had an iodine numbers which increased from 370 on activation at 650°C for 2 h to 571 on activation at 760°C for 1.0 h, the product yield decreasing from 59 to 45 wt%. The high ash of the products, 23–67 wt%, limits their quality. The performances of fixed-bed and spouted bed-kiln reaction systems were compared by analyses of the properties of the products from Coal Valley coal. The fixed-bed system generally gave products with higher sorptive capacities under operating conditions which caused higher carbon burnoff.

An anoxic event at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary: the Fish Scale Marker Bed, northern Alberta, Canada

The Fish Scale Marker Bed (FSMB) of the Shaftesbury Formation, which marks the Albian-Cenomanian boundary, is a regional stratigraphic marker in the Western Interior of Canada. At the outcrop studied on the Smoky River in northwestern Alberta, three major shale units can be distinguished in the FSMB and contiguous strata. The lowermost shale (Unit 1) is bioturbated and contains high-diversity dinoflagellate and moderate-diversity foraminiferal assemblages. It has dominantly Type III (terrestrial) organic matter (OM) and low total organic carbon content (TOC). The unit was deposited in an open-marine, neritic environment of normal salinity. The FSMB (Unit 2) represents a zone of condensed bioclastic accumulation composed of abundant fish remains. The dinoflagellate species diversity is drastically reduced in this unit and it lacks benthonic foraminifera and bioturbation. Unit 2 is characterized by mainly Type II (marine) OM and high TOC values. Unit 2A contains rippled sandstone related to either a shallowing or to deeper water currents. A fish-hash conglomerate making up Unit 2B can alternatively be interpreted as a bioclastic, condensed and winnowed deposit or as a transgressive lag. Unit 2C consists of black, platy shale with abundant fish remains and represents a minor marine trangression during the deposition of FSMB, when the bottom waters were dominantly anoxic. Collectively, the features of Unit 2 suggest deposition under a stratified water column with moderate productivity of planktonic and nektonic organisms in the upper oxygenated layers but with anoxic bottom waters. Unit 3, overlying the FSMB, consists of blocky shale with reduced concentration of fish remains. Due to increased rate sedimentation during its deposition, the organic-rich sediment of Unit 3 was progressively diluted by clastic material and there was an increase in the dissolved oxygen content of the bottom waters. The anoxic event at the FSMB is related to a relative rise in sea level and possibly to the mixing of waters different salinities and temperatures from the Arctic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico in the Western Interior seaway.

Laurentide glaciation in west-central Alberta: a single (Late Wisconsinan) event

The Grande Prairie region in west-central Alberta shows evidence of Late Wisconsinan Laurentide glaciation in the form of a widespread till, containing abundant erratic clasts derived from the Canadian Shield. Two sections, located on the Smoky River at Watino and on the Simonette River 80 km to the southwest, expose sediment lying stratigraphically below the till. A similar sequence is exposed in both localities: 5–10 m of coarse quartzite gravel overlain by a thick sequence of sand and silt. The gravel contains no Laurentide erratics and is thus preglacial. The contact between the basal gravel and the overlying sand and silt is sharp and conformable. 14C dates from the base of the Simonette section and throughout the Watino section suggest a Middle Wisconsinan age. Thus, the sediment exposed is interpreted as a conformable Middle Wisconsinan sequence. The sedimentary sequences were deposited in a moderate- to low-energy braided stream system flowing towards the north. The general fining-up trend in the sections was produced as a result of channel abandonment, rather than by a change in regional base level. The sand and gravel units contain no material derived from the Canadian Shield. Consequently, the surface till is Late Wisconsinan, and represents the only Laurentide glaciation in this area of Alberta.

Footwall anchoring at Smoky River Coal limited : Fawcett, D A; Sheehan, P L; Martin, D C CIM BulletinV81, N915, July 1988, P78–85

Compte rendu de la realisation experimentale d'une grande fouille pour mine a ciel ouvert, dont la partie superieure (70 m) est realisee par etages, avec une pente moyenne reduite, et la partie inferieure (80 m) est realisee par clouage (pente a 68°), dans une roche sedimentaire stratifiee parallele a la pente. Projet, realisation, instrumentation (extensometres, dynamometres); cout

Statistical classification of macroscopic folds as cylindrical, circular conical, or elliptical conical

A folded surface can be represented by the orientation of normals to the surface measured at several locations. When plotted on the unit sphere, the pattern of normals determines the type of fold. Poles from a cylindrical fold give a great circle on the unit sphere, whereas poles of a circular conical fold give a small circle, and poles from an elliptical conical fold give the projection of an ellipse onto the surface of the sphere. Several statistical tests that appear in the literature for classifying folds are discussed and compared. All but one of the tests use quantities obtained from an iterative least-squares procedure that fits the appropriate curve on the sphere. The classification procedure is illustrated with folds from the Canadian Rocky Mountains and uses for examples a cylindrical fold and a circular conical fold from the Smoky River coal field near Grande Cache, Alberta, and an elliptical conical fold near Jasper, Alberta. This methodology has resulted in new coal reserves in the Grande Cache area.

Geotechnical and mine planning considerations in structurally thickened coal deposits at Smoky River Coal Limited, Alberta

ABSTRACT Structurally thickened coal deposits often form attractive surface mining targets. At Smoky River Coal Limited (SRCL), economic occurrences of structurally thickened coal are found in folded and faulted strata due to the mechanisms of hinge zone dilation and imbricate thrusting (duplexes) respectively. The characteristic features of these steeply dipping and complexly structured deposits require that special attention be given to pit wall design and operational practices. This paper examines the characteristics of structurally thickened coal deposits at SRCL that affect the surface mining process and explains relevant geotechnical parameters and operational considerations that are used to mine these deposits. Three case histories are also examined to illustrate design and monitoring methods that are employed.

Glauconite nodules in a Nampa pedon from Alberta

Nodules 0.1–0.7 mm in diameter seen in thin sections of the C horizon of a soil from the Peace River area of Alberta were analyzed. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXRA) showed their composition (%) to be approximately MgO, 3; Al2O3, 22; SiO2, 52; K2O, 4; CaO, 2; Fe2O3, 10. X-ray analysis by Gandolfi camera showed strong glauconite lines and weak lines for quartz and kaolinite. The presence of these relatively large glauconite nodules in an otherwise fine-grained material is incompatible with its presumed lacustrine origin. Presumably, the glauconite nodules were inherited from the Smoky River shale, and the C horizon material may be residual.

The geometry of folded and thrusted rocks in the Rocky Mountain Foothills near Grande Cache, Alberta

Lower Cretaceous clastic rocks make up the Inner Foothills of the Rocky Mountains along the Smoky River near Grande Cache, Alberta. Shortening of these rocks is accomplished by folding and thrusting and averages 33% over the area studied.Folds in the area are of the chevron variety. They are caused by shortening of a multilayered sequence of alternating competent and incompetent strata, where the thickness of the competent layers is fairly constant. The folds are generally cylindrical and maintain their shapes over distances of up to 2 km along trend. However, at their tapering ends they are conical.The majority of the faults are southwest-dipping thrusts, displaying ramps that cut up stratigraphic section and flats that are parallel to bedding. The best exposed fault in the area is the Mason Thrust. Displacements along this fault increase from 150 m in the northwest to 1500 m in the southeastern part of the area. A prominent anticline below the Mason Thrust diminishes gradually towards the southeast. A conical fold with a half apical angle of 7° describes this geometry. Shortening by this fold decreases from about 30% in the northwest to 10% in the southeastern part of the area. This indicates that a decrease in shortening by folding is compensated by an increase in thrust fault displacement. It is an example of fault-to-fold displacement transfer.

Relationship between CO2 Reactivity and Structure of Metallurgical Cokes (II)

The optical texture, pore structure and ash constituents of cokes must be generally influencial factors for CO2 gasification reaction of cokes. In the present report, the influence of pore structure of the three factors on maximum gasification rate (RM) of lump cokes at 1100°C were studied with seven cokes produced from single coking coals of various ranks.The results were as follows.(1) RM showed minimum at Ro=ca. 1.5% (mean maximum reflectance).(2) Smoky River and Itmann cokes with high contents of flow type texture, the parent coals of which were 1.57% and 1.66% in Ro respectively, had larger internal surface area mostly due to micro pore (radius: 110A>) than the others.(3) Both cokes were larger in the average radius of macro pore (radius: 110-42000A) than the others.(4) Pore-diffusion resistance, which was evaluated by “effective reaction coefficient” defined as the ratio of RM to reaction rate without the influence of pore-diffusion, tended to decrease with increasing the average radius of macro pore.It was concluded that the cokes from high rank coals have the weak pore-diffusion resistance due to macro pore with large pore radius and the large internal surface area due to well-developod micro pore, and therefore CO2 reactivity of the cokes must be high in spite of high contents of flow type texture.