Smelter Emissions Research Articles

Distribution of copper smelter emissions in Southeastern Arizona ? Using honey mesquite as a bioindicator

Honey mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), a representative species of the Sonoran Desert ecosystem, was studied as a possible bioindicator for industrial smelter pollution. Samples from soils, leaves and bark were collected along distance and elevation gradients from the largest operating copper smelter in Arizona and analyzed for element concentrations of Zn, Cu, Fe, Ti, Mn, Al, Mg, Cs, Sm, Ce, U, Th, Yb, As, La, Hf, Sb, Sc, V, In, W, Ba, Br, K, Na, Cl and Au. Depending on the sample type — soil, leaf or bark — between 5 and 15 elements were identified as smelter immissions. Two distinct covariate element groups formed in samples from the study site could be related to the chemistry of different smelting processes. A common atmospheric transport pattern was found to exist for the smelter emittants Cu, Sb and As over long distances. The identification and specification of smelter immissions in honey mesquite makes this tree a well-suited bioindicator for industrial smelter pollution.

Trends in small lake water chemistry near Sudbury, Canada, 1983?1991

While many studies have documented improvements in chemical conditions of large lakes near Sudbury, Canada in response to reduced smelter emissions, few have examined changes in water chemistry of small lakes. We studied trends in water chemistry of 97 small (<10 ha), shallow (<15 m) lakes northeast of Sudbury that are important habitat for breeding waterfowl. Currently, many small lakes near Sudbury are acidified, with little acid-neutralizing capacity and with relatively high concentrations of Al, Mn, and Ni. We also present evidence of short-term improvements in pH and SO4 levels, but demonstrate that, over a nine year period, there has been no consistent, long-term trend of chemical recovery. Chemical conditions in these lakes varied considerably between 1983 and 1991, and responded quickly to changes in precipitation levels. However, the present condition of most lakes suggests that further reductions in emissions will be required to improve these habitats for breeding waterfowl.

Impact of the sulphur dioxide sources in the Kola Peninsula on air quality in northernmost Europe

An account is presented of sulphur pollution in northernmost continental Europe, based on analysis of recent observations and on dispersion model calculations. To complement the routine daily observations made at background stations, SO 2 has also been measured using an hourly registering monitor at Jäniskoski in the Russian Kola Peninsula. Sulphur dioxide emissions from the Kola Peninsula, totalling 600 Gg (10 3 tonnes) yr −1 , have a dominant impact on SO 2 concentrations and S deposition over large areas, producing an environmental load exceeding the thresholds for potential detrimental effects. The major part of these emissions is produced by two non-ferrous smelters. Due to these sources, SO 2 concentrations vary considerably within the study area, from the low “remote background” values to pollution episodes with −100 μ g(SO 2 )m −3 as an hourly average, depending on wind direction. High concentrations also occur in summer, providing a great potential for dry deposition and suggesting that exposure is a highly episodic process. On an annual basis, dry deposition predominates over wet deposition. Precipitation acidity is related mainly to sulphate, and neutralization by alkaline cations is exceptionally low in the north. According to model calculations, a potentially critical deposition of 0.3 g(S) m −2 yr −1 is exceeded over an area of 150,000 km 2 , 32,000 km 2 of which are in Finland and 19,000 km 2 in Norway. Within this area the contribution of smelter emissions to sulphur deposition ranges from 40% to almost 100%.

Performance of a soil model in predicting consequences of smelter emissions, including abatement scenarios

Surface soils have been sinks for contaminants for many decades, both intentionally and inadvertently. Most of the models used in risk assessments to determine surface soil concentrations have been...

Chemical Responses of Acidic Lakes in the Sudbury, Ontario, Area to Reduced Smelter Emissions, 1981–89

Monitoring of acidic lakes in the Sudbury, Ontario, area showed that general changes in water quality (increases in pH and acid-neutralizing capacity; decreases in concentrations of SO42−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al, and Mn) have continued through the mid-1980's, following substantial reductions in sulphur emissions from area smelters in the late 1970's. By the late 1980's, these trends had levelled off, or even reversed in some lakes. No general, temporal trends were evident during the 1980's for concentrations of Cu, Ni, or Zn, metals directly associated with the smelter emissions. The widespread water quality improvements seen in lakes of the Sudbury area provide very strong support for the use of source controls to combat aquatic acidification. However, the fact that many Sudbury area lakes are still highly acidic and metal contaminated demonstrates that additional emission controls, which are being implemented, are essential in this region.

The isotopic composition of lead in man and the environment in Finland 1966–1987: isotope ratios of lead as indicators of pollutant source

The isotopic composition of lead was determined in samples collected between 1966 and 1987, mainly from the Helsinki area, in emission sources (gasoline, incinerator and lead smelter emissions, coal), air, in samples representing long-term deposition (lichen, soil. lake sediments), and in human tissue. Isotope ratios were determined by thermal ionization mass spectrometry after chemical separation of lead by anion exchange and cathodic electrodeposition. The origin of lead in man and the environment in the Helsinki area was evaluated by using the differences in the measured isotope ratios as an indicator. The mean of the ratio in gasoline ( 206Pb/ 207Pb 1.124 ± 0.026) and the ratios in other emission sources in Helsinki (1.149–1.226) were significantly different. However, the wide range of isotope ratios in gasoline (1.063–1.173) reduced the accuracy when assessing the contribution of the different sources. Lead in air samples from Helsinki (1.123 ± 0.013) could be attributed to gasoline, as could lead in soil near a highway (1.136 ± 0.003). By contrast, isotope ratios measured in lichen (1.148 ± 0.006) indicated considerable amounts of lead from sources with higher 206Pb abundances, evidently industrial sources. The isotope ratios in human liver, lung, and bone from individuals dying between 1976–1979 ( 206Pb/ 207Pb ratio 1.142 ± 0.015, 1.151 ± 0.011, and 1.156 ± 0.013, respectively) reflect the large lead emission from the incinerators and lead smelters in the Helsinki area in the 1960s and 1970s. In lake sediment cores a correlation was found between the isotope ratios, lead concentration, and depth. The nonanthropogenic lead of high isotope ratios from bedrock was the major component at depths dated older than 100 years. At the surface of the sediment atmospheric lead prevailed, with ratios similar to those of gasoline, air samples and lichen. In the post-1900 layers, anthropogenic lead made up about 40–95% of the total sedimentary lead.

Recovery of the highly acidified Clearwater Lake watershed, Ontario, Canada, simulated with the ILWAS model

The Integrated Lake Watershed Acidification Study (ILWAS) model was used to simulate the recovery of the highly acidified Clearwater Lake, Ontario. Recovery started in the mid-1970s and continued through the 1980s in response to an estimated 30–50% decrease in S deposition from smelter emissions in nearby Sudbury, Ontario. Appreciable recovery of Clearwater Lake between the mid-1970s and 1987 is simulated by the ILWAS model, as indicated by a 50% decrease in SO − 4 concentration, an 80% decrease in total Al concentration, an increase in acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) from −60 to −17 μeq/l, and an increase in pH from 4.2 to 4.8. These decreases in acidic constituents are in good agreement with monitoring data. Long-term simulations indicate that deacidification may continue until ∼2020, if S deposition rates remain at or less than the 1987 level. Simulations for years beyond 2020 yield yearly average ANC values of 18–40 μeq/l and pH values of 6.2–6.6, which are comparable to the estimated pre-smelter pH of 6.0–6.5 for Clearwater Lake. The agreement between simulated and monitoring data for the first 10 a of recovery and the simulated long-term recovery of the lake to its presmelter level of acidity lend confidence in the capability of numerical models to simulate the reversibility of watershed acidification and suggest that some highly acidic watersheds may eventually recover, given substantial decreases in acid deposition.

Biological recovery of an acid lake after reductions in industrial emissions of sulphur

THERE is now considerable evidence from Canada1–4, Norway5, Sweden6 and Scotland7 that lake and stream acidification is chemically reversible. Water quality improvements have been shown to occur rapidly when inputs of sulphur are reduced8. However, there is little evidence that biological systems recover after emission reductions9. We report here on changes in the biological community of an acid-stressed lake near the metal smelters at Sudbury, Canada, during a 10-year period (1978–1988) after smelter emissions of sulphur were reduced by more than 50%. Our studies of the fish, benthic invertebrates, and zooplankton in this lake show that rapid recovery and reinvasion occurs among some acid-sensitive species.

The Continuing Effects of Aluminium Smelter Emissions on Coniferous Forest Growth

The Continuing Effects of Aluminium Smelter Emissions on Coniferous Forest Growth

Copper, nickel, and iron levels in pelage of red squirrels living near the ore smelters at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada

Geographical and seasonal variabilities in pelage metal levels of the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) were studied in wild populations subject to different degrees of contaminant fallout from the copper–nickel smelters at Sudbury, Ontario. Levels of copper and iron in recently emerged pelage (10–12 and 13–20 μg∙g−1, respectively) did not differ among animals from highly contaminated, moderately contaminated, and noncontaminated sites, thus indicating minimal metal loading via endogenous routes. Nickel levels were significantly elevated for animals at the two contaminated sites relative to the control group; however, such increases are believed to reflect external contamination from environmental sources and (or) cross-contamination between old and new pelage coats. Pelage in the premoult condition, having been subjected to exogenous influences during the pelage year, showed higher levels of all three metals at one or both of the contaminated sites but not at the control site. Relative increases of nickel, copper, and iron coincided with atmospheric loading ratios reported for the Sudbury smelters, thus confirming the latter as the source. Nickel gains conformed to a previously reported model in that pelage burdens varied as a simultaneous function of duration of exposure to the environment and reciprocal of distance from the pollution source. Element-specific variabilities are discussed in relation to the use of pelage and choice of elements in monitoring smelter emission fallout.

Effects of sulfur dioxide emissions on stream chemistry in the western United States

A 20‐year record of water chemistry for seven headwater streams in the Rocky Mountain region of the western United States is compared to estimates of local and regional sulfur dioxide emissions for the same period. Emissions from smelters in the region comprise a significant part of sulfur dioxide emissions for the 11 states upwind of acid‐sensitive watersheds in the Rocky Mountains, but smelter emissions have steadily decreased since 1970. Analysis of stream chemistry indicates conservative behavior of watershed sulfate, with atmospheric deposition as the dominant source of sulfate. No relation between regional stream chemistry and smelter or regional sulfur dioxide emissions is detected for the watersheds. Local emissions trends, however, do appear to affect sulfate concentrations in the streams. Year‐to‐year variability in stream sulfate concentration is much greater than any long‐term trends that might be inferred.

Aspects of atmospheric pollutant origin and deposition revealed by multielemental observations at a rural location in eastern Canada

During autumn 1984, at a location in central Ontario, a study of the elemental composition of aerosols and precipitation was undertaken to determine the feasibility of making daily multielemental measurements on a routine basin, to probe the potential for gaining insight into pollutant origin from multielemental composition, and to estimate trace element deposition to an acid‐sensitive watershed. The concentrations of Ti, Br, Mn, In, Na, V, Al, Ca, Se, As, Sb, Pb, Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Cd in aerosol and of Pb, Mg, Ca, As, Br, I, Mn, and V in precipitation were measurable routinely, using neutron activation, X ray fluorescence, and plasma emission spectroscopy. Standard high volume samplers for total aerosols below 15 μm diameter as well as dichotomous samplers and Andersen impactors for size fractionation were operated simultaneously with two wet‐only precipitation collectors. Aerosol data revealed four components: one soil (Mg‐Ti‐Al‐Ca‐Fe) and three anthropogenic (Se‐Sb‐Pb‐Cd‐Br; Mass‐Cu‐SO4=; In‐As). Ranked in order of increasing mass fraction in 2.1‐ to 10‐μm diameter particles are the elements Pb, S, Se, Br, As, Cl, Na, V, In, Cu, Mn, Al, Ba, Ti, and Ca. A comparison of air parcel origin on high‐ and low‐concentration days, using 3‐day back trajectories, revealed major source regions of SO4=, Pb, In, As, and Al. The element In is an excellent tracer of smelter emissions to the north. Although the estimated mean ratio of In/Se in smelter emissions from central Ontario is close to that used in the regional aerosol apportionment model of Rahn and Lowenthal, its variability is greater than they propose. In 21 precipitation events, strong correlations were found between H+‐SO4 =, Ca++‐Mg++, NO3−‐NH4+‐Cl−‐V, and Pb‐Br. The mass ratio of Br/Pb was higher in precipitation (0.47) than in aerosols (0.27), possibly because of precipitation scavenging of HBr gas in addition to Br in aerosols. In ascending order, the estimated dry‐deposited fraction of total deposition of Br, Pb, Mg, Mn, Ca, S, V, and As ranged from 10 to 42%.

Regional and background aerosol trace elemental composition observed in eastern Canada

Measurements of the trace elemental composition of atmospheric aerosols were undertaken at three rural locations in eastern Canada during the autumn of 1984. One aim was to investigate differences in anthropogenic elemental composition between aerosols of regional eastern North American origin and “background” aerosols in air masses moving into the region. Another aim was to identify the origin of aerosol trace elements with the use of air parcel back-trajectories, multivariate analysis, and lead isotope ratios.Daily aerosol samples taken at Dorset Ontario, For&amp; Montmorency Quebec, and Kejimkujik Nova Scotia, were analyzed by instrumental neutron activation analysis and inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry for Ti, Br, Mn, In, Na, V, Al, Ca, Se, As, Sb, Pb, Cd, and Pb-206/207 isotope ratios. Average concentrations of Na and V showed the greatest regional diversity and were 8.0 and 5.4 times higher at Kejimkujik than at Dorset, respectively. Factor analysis revealed the presence of a soil, a marine, and a general pollution component in the aerosols, plus additional components specific for a few elements of anthropogenic origin. Cornparison of mean concentrations in samples grouped by similarity of the associated back-trajectories showed that In and As were excellent tracers of non-ferrous smelter emissions. Trajectories from prominent coal-burning areas were also enriched in As but were associated with low In concentrations.Groups of trajectories originating from background areas, i.e., without major anthropogenic sources of aerosols, formed a significant fraction of the samples and accounted for 20%-25% of the classified aerosol samples at each site. Comparison of the mean concentrations in the background groups with each other and with similar aerosol data from the Arctic showed that both local influences, such as the composition of soils in the immediate area, and long-range transport of aerosols can affect the apparent local composition of the background aerosol.Using recent findings by Sturges and Barrie that there is a significant difference between the Pb isotope ratio in aerosols from smelters, Canadian auto exhaust and American sources, the fraction of Pb originating from each source was estimated for each location. During the 3-month period studied, it is estimated that Pb from automotive emissions in the US accounted for 46%, 28%, and 44% of the atmospheric Pb at Dorset, For&amp; Montmorency, and Kejimkujik, respectively, versus 52%, 67%, and 51% from Canadian auto exhaust.

Effect of smelter emissions on the hemogram of the deer mouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus)

Blood samples were obtained from 284 deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus) live-trapped near two base metal smelters in northern Manitoba, Canada. Hemoglobin and hematocrit values were significantly higher in mice trapped within 40–70 km of the smelters compared to those in control areas 185 to 190 km from the smelter. These increases appear to be normal physiological responses to a mild respiratory stress, as in a true secondary polycythemia of anoxic tupe. The mice are sensitive bioindicators of sulphur dioxide emissions that apparently induce the higher blood values.

Analysis of ambient lead concentrations around three secondary lead smelters

Ambient Pb concentrations measured over a 30 mo span around three secondary Pb smelters in the City of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada are statistically analyzed. The results obtained are compared with the provincial regulatory air quality guideline. The contribution of smelter emissions to high Pb levels that exceed the provincial guideline is also demonstrated. It is concluded, by inference, that the Secondary Lead Smelter National Emission Standards Regulations were effectively implemented.

Smelter shutdown used in study of rain chemistry

The closing of a copper smelter near Tacoma, Wash., in the spring of 1986 gave a group of scientists at the University of Washington (Seattle) a unique opportunity to do a study of the effects of the smelter's emissions on the chemistry of rainwater in the area. The smelter, specially equipped to handle high‐arsenic copper ore, was once the largest single source of airborne arsenic in the United States. Two papers on these studies were presented on December 11, 1986, at the AGU Fall Meeting/ASLO Winter Meeting in San Francisco, Calif.The group, headed by Richard J. Vong, set up a network of 38 sites to analyze rainwater in the Seattle‐Tacoma area. The researchers took advantage of the smelter's coastal location by confining their observations to rainfall from cyclonic frontal systems that came directly in from the Pacific Ocean. These systems had not yet passed over any large pollution sources other than the smelter, according to Richard E. Peterson II, a member of the research team.

An analysis of the impact of the Sudbury smelters on wet and dry deposition in OntariO

Meteorological analyses of acidic deposition data were undertaken to quantify the effect of Sudbury emissions on precipitation quality and air quality in Ontario during the period 1980–1983 with particular emphasis on the Sudbury smelter shutdown period (July 1982–March 1983). The techniques used included air parcel trajectories and detailed meteorological analysis. Results indicate that the contribution of the Sudbury smelters to sulphate wet deposition in central and southern Ontario was small—less than 12 % of the wet deposition at the study sites. The smelter contribution to sulphur dry deposition was greater—possibly as high as 47 % of the total at Kapuskasing, and up to about 20–30% of the total in central Ontario, with a smaller contribution (less than 5 %) to the southwest and west of Sudbury. These percentages apply to the smelter emission rate in the early 1980s, i.e. about 0.9 million metric tons of SO 2 per year.

Influence of zinc smelter emissions on leaves of Pinus sylvestris and Vaccinium species as revealed by some morphological and ecophysiological indices

One- and 2-year old needles of Pinus sylvestris exposed to emissions from a nearby zinc smelter had after a 1-year exposure 4.8% and 11.4% necrotic material, respectively; for Vaccinium vitis-idaea and Vaccinium myrtillus leaves the percentage of necrotic surface areas were 60% and 27%, respectively, for the same exposure duration. The leaves which were without visible necrosis, representing the principal object of this research, had a 30% decrease in length and 6% decrease in number for Pinus sylvestris. The leaves of Vaccinium vitis-idaea and Vaccinium myrtillus decreased in size by 23% and 13%, respectively. The acid buffering capacity of aqueous homogenates of leaves was drastically lowered in the necrotic material but non-necrotic leaves from plants grown in the polluted areas had buffering capacity during the season both lower and higher than those of the control plants, which were from a site removed from the smelter. Calculated pH-dependency of buffer capacity, expressed in μmol H + per mg chlorophyll a per pH unit, of the tested material resembled that observed in suspensions of isolated spinach chlroplasts. The latter buffer capacity, after alteration of the starting homogenate by ±0.5 pH, was as much as 160% that of non-necrotic tissue from polluted areas relative to that of the control. Exposure to light caused a decrease in pH of homogenates by up to 0.25 pH units. The time in which the pH maximum change took place depended on the proximity of the plot to the emission site. A decrease in buffer capacity against acid from light was also apparent. The uptake of protons in light as compared to that in dark was defined for water suspensions of solid fractions separated from homogenates. The remaining solution showed a strong influence on the ox.: red equilibrium of the two applied systems, depending on several factors, among them proximity to the pollution site.

Water quality improvements in the Sudbury, Ontario, Canada area related to reduced smelter emissions

Data from water quality studies conducted in the Sudbury, Ontario, Canada area indicate that substantial decreases in the acidity of surface waters have accompanied reductions in SO2 emissions from the Sudbury smelting industry since 1977. On average, acidic lakes in the Sudbury area showed a decrease in H+ of ∼ 50% between 1974–76 and 1981–83, and the severity of springtime pH depressions in streams decreased. Although many Sudbury area surface waters remain highly acidic, general decreases in acidity appear to be continuing. The results demonstrate that reductions in emissions of acids and acid precursors result in concomitant improvements in water quality.

The use of Br/Pb ratios in atmospheric particles to discriminate between vehicular and industrial lead sources in the vicinity of a lead works—I. Thorpe, West Yorkshire

Atmospheric concentrations of Br and Pb were measured at two sites close to a secondary lead smelter. Using data from periods when no winds from the works reached the sampler and when the smelter was closed, non industrial Br/Pb ratios were estimated. These were then used to calculate the contribution of the smelter to lead in air. At a site 800 m from the smelter, a mean industrial contribution of 0.12–0.24 μg (Pb)m −3 (21–44% of total lead) was estimated with 95% confidence for a 3-month period. Under exceptional circumtances of strong and persistent winds from the smelter, higher levels of industrial Pb were observed amounting to 0.76–0.89 μg(Pb)m −3 or 60–70% of total atmospheric lead (95% confidence). A correlation coefficient of 0.86 between estimated industrial Pb concentrations and Sb (characteristic of the smelter emissions) provided verification of the method. Analysis of other metals (Sn, Fe, Cd, Ba, Cu and Na) in both atmospheric samples and various dusts and fumes associated with the smelter provided evidence that the industrial Pb originated not only from stack emissions, but also from ground-level fugitive sources.