Smallholder Production Research Articles

Influence of Banana Production Practices and Constraints in Banana Production among Small-holder Farmers in Masaba South Sub-County, Kisii County, Kenya

Globally, consumption of banana (Musa spp) as fruit is due to its high nutritional and medicinal value and thus, it is considered as a powerhouse of nutrients that maintain good health. However, banana production has been influenced by various agricultural practices and faced several constraints over the years. Therefore, this study sought to establish the influence of banana production practices and constraints among small-holder banana production farmers in Masaba south sub-county, Kenya. A household survey was carried out to collect primary data. Four administrative wards were purposefully sampled for the study. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire and key informant interviews. Questionnaires were administered to 196 households and 5 key informants to collect data on the influence of banana production practices and constraints among farmers. Data collected was subjected to both descriptive and inferential analysis. Williams Hybrid was found to be the most popular variety with a frequency of 82.1% followed by Gros Michel at 70.4%, Apple bananas (sugar bananas) at 69.4% while Plantains and Cavendish were at 62.2% and 55.6% respectively. Majority, 87.2% of the farmers embraced pure stand production system whereas 12.9% did not embrace the system. However, 97.5% of the farmers adopted intercropping system while only 2.5% did not embrace the system. 91.8% of the farmers adopted use of tissue culture planting materials while 8.2% did not embrace them. 100% of the farmers used suckers as planting materials. Pests and diseases were the prevalent constraints in banana production, rated at 100%. Therefore, there is need to address the influence of banana production practices and constraints among farmers in Masaba South sub county through targeted interventions and policy support is essential for sustainable banana production in Kenya.

Breeding objectives and economic value of important traits of Abergelle goats kept under a smallholder production system in Tigray, Ethiopia

Context In developing countries, the production of livestock can be improved by establishing a functional breeding program that involves communities in planning and implementation. Production objectives, farmers’ preferences for traits, and the economic value of the traits need to be studied and documented in designing a functional breeding program. Aim This study aims to identify production objectives, determine the preferred traits of smallholder farmers, and estimate the economic values of important traits for Abergelle goats in Tigray, Ethiopia. Methods An own-flock ranking exercise was used to identify the trait preferences of smallholder farmers. A bio-economic model was employed to estimate the economic values of important traits of Abergelle goats. Key results Abergelle goats were mainly kept for income generation followed by milk production. Appearance (size), color, libido, pedigree, and growth were the most important breeding-buck attributes, whereas milk yield, mothering ability (kid survival and growth), pedigree, coat color, kidding interval, and twinning were the important attributes for breeding does. Positive economic values of €0.25, €0.12, €0.45, €0.68, €0.17 and €2.00 per genetic standard deviation were obtained for 6-month weight, mature weight, daily milk yield, liter size, kidding interval, and pre-weaning kid survival per average doe place and year respectively. However, a negative economic value of −€0.017 per genetic standard deviation was achieved for 3–6-month average daily gain (ADG) per doe per year. Conclusions In this study, the most economically significant traits with positive economic values were pre-weaning survival, litter size, daily milk yield, 6-month weight, mature weight, and kidding interval. Implication Including these traits in the breeding goals can increase the profitability of the flock and improve the livelihood of Abergelle goat keepers.

Digital tools and welfare: adoption determinants among ginger producers in Southern and Central Ethiopia

IntroductionLow adoption rates of digital tools in agricultural extension services persisted among smallholder ginger producers in Southern and Central Ethiopia, despite their recognized benefits. This study investigated the factors that drove or hindered digital tool adoption in this context.MethodsA mixed-methods approach was used, combining qualitative interviews and quantitative data analysis. The Endogenous Switching Regression model was applied to examine the socio-economic, institutional, and technological factors affecting adoption.ResultsThe results showed that digital tool adoption significantly enhanced both agricultural productivity and household income among smallholder farmers. Key determinants included access to digital infrastructure, availability of ICT resources, and tailored extension services.DiscussionThe findings suggested a need for policies that promoted digital adoption, emphasizing infrastructure investment, expanded ICT access, and the development of specialized extension programs. These actions were seen as crucial for advancing rural livelihoods, supporting sustainable agriculture, and stabilizing the regional economy.

Deciphering the anthocyanin metabolism gene network in tea plant (Camellia sinensis) through structural equation modeling

BackgroundTea is an important cash crop that significantly contributes to rural development, poverty reduction and food security in many developing countries. It provides livelihoods for millions of smallholder producers and aids their economic stability. Anthocyanins in tea leaves provides excellent commercial quality and germplasm exploration potential. These compounds give tea leaves vibrant colors and increase health benefits. The current understanding of the synergistic regulation mechanisms responsible for color changes in purple tea, attributed to anthocyanin degradation, remains unclear.ResultsIn this study, we have identified 30 gene families within the genome that are associated to with anthocyanin metabolism from tea. These gene families play distinct roles in the biosynthesis of anthocyanin including the formation of the core, structure, modification of the molecular framework, facilitation of transport process, regulation of gene expression, breakdown pathways, sugar transportation and iron ion respectively. Subsequently, we investigated the synergistic mechanisms of anthocyanin metabolism related gene families within tea leaves using structural equation modeling. The results showed that sugar transport positively affects anthocyanin transportation, and promotes anthocyanin degradation during leaf pigmentation, whereas, it inhibits anthocyanin degradation during the fading of leaf color. Further, Iron ions facilitate the degradation of anthocyanins during their deposition and conversely, impede this degradation process during digestion. These finding suggests that tea plants may regulate the synthesis and degradation of anthocyanins through sugar transport and iron ions ensure healthy levels and vibrant colors.ConclusionsOur study contributes valuable information into the dynamic equilibrium anthocyanin mechanism and sheds light on complex regulatory mechanisms that govern the synthesis, transport and degradation of these pigments. These insights could be further used to develop strategies for enhancing anthocyanins content in unique tea germplasm to aid tea industry in producing new tea products with increased health benefits and aesthetic appeals.

Growing wealth from nature: analyzing the profitability and determinants of high-value medicinal plants in smallholder production systems

Growing wealth from nature: analyzing the profitability and determinants of high-value medicinal plants in smallholder production systems

Examining the Barriers to Redesigning Smallholder Production Practices for Water-Use Efficiency in Numbi, Mbombela Local Municipality, South Africa

Smallholder farmers in South Africa face issues related to water shortages and poor irrigation water management. This study investigated barriers to improving water-use efficiency (WUE) in smallholder production practices in Numbi, South Africa. The objectives were to identify barriers in redesigning production practices for higher agricultural productivity and analyze the relationship between irrigation water supply and the adoption of WUE methods. From a population of 7696 people, 141 smallholder farmers were sampled using a simple random sampling technique through Taro Yamane’s sample size formula. The data were analyzed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and descriptive statistics. Unreliable water supply (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), poor soil water retention (M = 3.78, SD = 0.85), lack of water-efficient irrigation systems (M = 3.91, SD = 0.71), lack of water storage facilities (M = 3.85, SD = 0.93), limited access to credit (M = 4.09, SD = 0.85), income instability due to market fluctuations (M = 3.96, SD = 0.91), inadequate knowledge of irrigation management (M = 4.00, SD = 0.84), and harsh climatic factors were identified. A positive correlation (r = 0.339, n = 141, p < 0.001) between irrigation water source and WUE techniques was evident, indicating that irrigation water source had an insignificant impact on WUE methods. Resolving these barriers requires a holistic approach focusing on investments in irrigation infrastructure and targeted education initiatives by extension agents and other stakeholders, as this can enhance agricultural productivity.

Transitioning practices of vegetable small-scale actors in Vietnam: an interplay of food safety, labor demand, and soil environment

AbstractFood safety is a critical and persistent issue that challenges the sustainability of agri-food systems in Vietnam. The government has launched multiple food safety initiatives, but there is limited understanding of their contribution to changing the practices of small-scale producers and distributors. This study explores these changing practices by applying Social Practice Theory (SPT) to analyze the transitions in everyday routines of small-scale vegetable producers while being embedded in socio-institutional contexts of agri-food system transitions. We conducted semi-structured interviews and survey with small-scale food producers and distributors in Hanoi, Vietnam to examine the transitions in production and post-production practices over the last 20 years and the intersection between smallholding practices and cross-level dynamics. The study revealed, contrary to some common perceptions, that smallholder producers are transitioning towards food safety, with the use of more bio-pesticides and eco-friendly pest control methods. The smallholders also reproduce a variety of (sustainable) intensification practices, including crop rotation, organic fertilization, and soil cultivation, to sustain soil fertility and save labor. However, there are no clear patterns of change for post-production practices, although they have been diversifying under the impacts of urbanization. The findings highlight the interplay of food safety, labor, and soil environment in shaping the transitions of smallholder practices. We suggest that success in improving safety in production practices is feasible, but that this requires more thorough interventions in distribution and consumption practices to transform the food systems at large.

Impact assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic on the income and food security of rice smallholder producers in five African countries

Impact assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic on the income and food security of rice smallholder producers in five African countries

The role of Teff crop in Ethiopian life: consumption and contribution to rural livelihoods

Teff (Eragrostis tef) is believed to be the smallest grain in the world. It is the most important crop in Ethiopia in terms of production and consumption. Smallholder farmers produce Teff, and it is the main source of income for farmers in comparison to other cereal crops. Teff is the daily staple food for over 50 million Ethiopians. There is a need for information on agricultural consumption, disaggregated at district level, to support evidence-based decision-making at local level. The objective of this paper is to understand the consumption of Teff among rural smallholder producers at district level and assess the position of Teff among cereals in the lives of Ethiopian rural farmers. The study employed a multistage sampling technique to select the top Teff producing regions, districts, and kebeles (small administrative units) and collected primary data through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informants, and questionnaire respondents. The survey collected qualitative and quantitative data from 357 households. FGD, key informant interview (KII) participants and survey respondents were drawn from the same areas where the survey was conducted. The quantitative and qualitative data were subjected to statistical and content analysis respectively. The study findings revealed that on average households consume 26.92% of their Teff production per year. Moreover, there is a shift in the consumption of Teff which might be due to improved standards of living among the farmers, a health-conscious community, and improved income from Teff sales. Although Teff is a staple grain in Ethiopia, there is a statistically significant variation in Teff consumption among districts.

On-farm multi-location testing of synthetic dual-purpose chicken breed (DZ-white) at Lowland area of Kaffa Zone of Ethiopia

A study evaluated synthetic dual purpose DZ-white’s adaptability and production performance in lowland agro-ecology. A total of 900 day-old chicks were distributed to fifteen (15) participant farmers (sixty chicks per farmer). Vaccines for Newcastle and Gumboro were administered as per veterinarian recommendations. Initially, chicks were supplemented with commercial feed and gradually shifted to locally available feed resources. Data on body weight, age at first egg, egg production, egg weight and farmers’ perception were recorded. On average, the adult male and female chicken body weight recorded at 20 weeks of age were 331.2 grams and 273.3 grams per chicken, respectively. Moreover, in the present study, the adult male and female chicken body weight recorded at 20 weeks of age were 1541.3 grams and 476.9 grams per chicken, respectively. The result also showed that an average egg weight at initial laying stage 5%, 50% and peak production stage were 44.09 grams, 48.33 grams and 55.45 grams, respectively. In the current study, chickens produced 296 eggs annually. Based on the adaptability, production performance and social acceptance, participant farmers preferred synthetic dual purpose DZ- white chicken breed to commonly used local and exotic breeds. As a result of their moderate growth and production performance, scavenging ability and social acceptance, demonstration and scaling up of the breed in the rural smallholder production system are highly recommended.

Assessment of livestock husbandry practices and production constraints among smallholder mixed crop-livestock production systems in the Majang zone, southwest Ethiopia

Livestock production plays a significant role in improving the livelihoods of poor smallholder farmer households in the Majang zone. However, despite its importance, there is limited information on husbandry practices and constraints on livestock production to design and implement effective interventions to maximize productivity. The aim of this study was to assess husbandry practices and major constraints on livestock production in the Majang zone, southwest Ethiopia. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from a randomly selected sample of 168 households (HHs) through a face-to-face interview from January to May 2021. The results revealed that mixed crop-livestock farming is the dominant livestock production system in the study area. The overall average herd size per household (HH) was 2.15 ± 0.11 cattle, 0.15 ± 0.01 sheep, 0.31 ± 0.09 goats, 0.10 ± 0.02 donkey, 0.04 ± 0.00 mule, 0.13 ± 0.02 horses and 0.24 ± 0.02 chickens. Overall herd size did not differ significantly by AEZ except for sheep (p < 0.05). The primary reason for keeping cattle, goats, sheep, equines and poultry were milk production (27.4 %), meat for home consumption (33.9 %), cash income (33.3 %), transportation (85.1 %), and meat for home consumption (72 %), respectively. In the dry and wet seasons, natural pasture, crop residues, indigenous fodder trees and shrubs (IFTSs), nonconventional feed resources (NCFRs), crop stubbles and improved forages were the main livestock feed resources. The majority (60.1 %) of respondents practiced free-grazing systems. Separate sheds, family dwellings, kraals, and open-walled sheds were the main housing systems used for animals. The majority (79.2 %) of respondents used rivers as a source of livestock drinking water. Trypanosomiasis (18.45 %), African horse sickness (66.1 %) and Newcastle disease (47.02 %) were the most important diseases of livestock. Diseases (35.7 %), lack of access to artificial insemination (35.7 %) and inadequate veterinary services (11.3 %) were identified as the top three constraints limiting production. It is recommended that constraints identified by farmers should be considered in developing and implementing effective interventions to improve livestock productivity and their contribution to poverty alleviation in the study area.

From crisis to opportunity: climate change benefits livestock production in Somalia

Abstract While livelihoods of Somalian livestock smallholders rely heavily on seasonal climate conditions, little is known of long-term implications of the changing climate for this nation. Here, we quantify implications of the changing climate on the productivity and profitability of livestock smallholders across a rainfall gradient in northwestern Somalia. Using the Sustainable Grazing Systems (SGS) model, we explore 80 future climate realisations, with global climate model projections including low- and high-impact socio-economic pathways (SSP245 and SSP585), two climate horizons (2040 and 2080) and four case study farm regions. In general, future seasonal and annual rainfall and temperature relative to the baseline period (1981–2020) increased for most regions. Mean annual temperatures increased by 9%–14%, while cumulative annual precipitation increased by 37%–57% from mid to late century, respectively. Grassland production increased with later climate horizons, as higher average annual rainfall together with elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide drove up growth rates in spring and autumn. Under the low emissions scenario (SSP245), changes in farm profit were modest or positive, ranging from negative 4% in Berbera–20% plus in Sheikh. Under the higher emissions scenario (SSP585), farm profits were higher, ranging from 23% to 42% above baseline profits, largely due to greater pasture production and lower requirements for supplementary feed. We conclude that future climates will benefit the productivity and profitability of smallholder farmers in Somalia, although more agile farm management will be required to cope with increased seasonal climate variability.

Goat meat supply and demand in Vietnam: global context and opportunities and risks for smallholder producers

Goat meat supply and demand in Vietnam: global context and opportunities and risks for smallholder producers

Assessing Soil and Land Suitability of an Olive–Maize Agroforestry System Using Machine Learning Algorithms

Exponential population increases are threatening food security, particularly in mountainous areas. One potential solution is dual-use intercropped agroforestry systems such as olive (Olea europaea)–maize (Zea mays), which may mitigate risk by providing multiple market sources (oil and grain) for smallholder producers. Several studies have conducted integrated agroforestry land suitability analyses; however, few studies have used machine learning (ML) algorithms to evaluate multiple variables (i.e., soil physicochemical properties and climatic and topographic data) for the selection of suitable rainfed sites in mountainous terrain systems. The goal of this study is therefore to identify suitable land classes for an integrated olive–maize agroforestry system based on the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) land suitability assessment framework for 1757 km2 in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Information on soil physical and chemical properties was obtained from 701 soil samples, along with climatic and topographic data. After determination of land suitability classes for an integrated olive–maize-crop agroforestry system, the region was then mapped through ML algorithms using random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM), as well as using traditional techniques of weighted overlay (WOL). Land suitability classes predicted by ML techniques varied greatly. For example, the S1 area (highly suitable) classified through RF was 9%↑ than that of SVM, and 8%↓ than that through WOL. The area of S2 (moderately suitable) classified through RF was 18%↑ than that of SWM and was 17%↓ than the area classified through WOL; similarly, the S3 (marginally suitable) class area via RF was 27%↓ than that of SVM, and 45%↓ than the area classified through WOL. Conversely, the area of N2 (permanently not suitable class) classified through RF and SVM was 6%↑ than the area classified through WOL. Model performance was assessed through overall accuracy and Kappa Index and indicated that RF performed better than SVM and WOL. Crop suitability limitations of the study area included high elevation, slope, pH, and large gravel content. Results can be used for sustainable intensification in mountainous rainfed regions by expanding intercrop agroforestry systems in developing nations to close yield gaps.

What Smallholders Want: Effective Strategies for Rural Poverty Reduction

Since poverty is particularly concentrated amongst smallholder farmers, development programs intend to support rural livelihoods and agricultural entrepreneurship. The final impact of these programs remains, however, rather limited due to insufficient understanding of key challenges that smallholder families are facing. Many well-intended initiatives for reinforcing smallholder production systems and for strengthening their commercial relationships meet conceptual and practical limitations that reduce their effectiveness. Smallholder livelihoods are most constrained because behavioural drivers for adopting innovations and for upgrading value-chain relationships are not well understood and are frequently overlooked. This article discusses the analytical linkages between the key causes of smallholder poverty, the constraints that limit the effectiveness of ongoing rural development initiatives, and the prospects for alternative strategies to support behavioural change. A better understanding of what smallholders want and need may lead to fundamentally new policy propositions. It is argued that technological change in smallholder production or integration into market systems will only take place if embedded in behavioural change mechanisms that are complemented by appropriate institutions and governance regimes. This asks for coordinated structural reforms in farm and community organisation, value chain integration and more effective public-private cooperation.

Greenhouse gas emission implications of small-scale sugarcane farmers’ trash management practices: A case for bioenergy production in South Africa

Sugarcane trash is a source of biomass available for energy generation. However, this potential has not been explored in the South African small-scale sugarcane sector. The current trash management practices of farmers, especially, pre-harvest burning, have huge negative environmental implications. Sustainable management of sugarcane trash could help address several challenges in the sugarcane industry including the high cost of irrigation. Therefore, this study is meant to assess small-scale growers’ trash management practices and their implications on greenhouse gas emissions. It also ascertains the potential for using sugarcane trash in the co-generation of electricity. The study was conducted in two communities in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces with 330 small-scale farmers. A probit regression was used to determine factors that influence farmers’ trash management practices. Other analyses such as estimations of the amount of available trash, burning emissions and potential energy from sugarcane were informed by previous studies. The findings showed that pre-burning of sugarcane is a common practice among smallholder producers in South Africa. However, some farmers have attempted to move away from this practice opting to leave their sugarcane in the field or use it for compost. The farmers’ burning of sugarcane releases an estimated 0.08 tCO2-e per ha into the atmosphere. In total, the estimated greenhouse gas emissions from sugarcane burning of all small-scale growers in the two provinces are 725 tCO2-e per annum. The findings also revealed that having more land, poor endowment with psychological capital, lack of access to extension, limited resources, and working in silos compound the practice of burning sugarcane. The estimated energy potential from small-scale sugarcane producers in the country, using a 50 % recovery efficiency and 36 % energy conversion efficiency is 150,323.3 MWh. The study proposes several recommendations for improving trash management practices and initiating the co-generation of electricity from trash in the small-scale sugarcane industry.

Yield Gaps and Factors Affecting Production Inefficiency in Smallholder Oil Palm Plantations in Muaro Jambi District Jambi Province

Abstract Oil palm plantations in Indonesia, including in Jambi Province, are categorized into large private plantation, state-owned plantation, and smallholder plantation. The productivity of smallholders is the lowest compared to the other 2 categories. At the district and sub-district level, the yield of smallholder oil palm is also vary, spreading from 1,675 to 6,680 kg CPO per ha per year. The large yield variation is inseparable from the plantation management among farmers. The objectives of this research are to study the yield gap and technical efficiency of production among smallholders, and to analyze the factors that affect the technical production inefficiency in smallholder oil palm plantation. The research was conducted in Muaro Jambi District as a main palm oil producing district in Jambi Province. Data was collected from a sampel of 120 independent smallholders. One way anova test was used to study the yield gap and double natural log (ln) of Cobb–Douglas stochastic frontier production function was used to analyze the technical efficiency and some factors affects its inefficiency. The results revealed that there were significant differences in yield among smallholders based on area size, level of education, and activeness in the farmer organizations. However, on average, the management of oil palm by independent smallholders is quite technically efficient. The factor that significantly affects the level of technical inefficiency are the size of the area and farmers’ level of education.

Assessing lameness prevalence and associated risk factors in crossbred dairy cows across diverse management environments

BackgroundA thorough understanding of lameness prevalence is essential for evaluating the impact of this condition on the dairy industry and assessing the effectiveness of preventive strategies designed to minimize its occurrence. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to ascertain the prevalence of lameness and identify potential risk factors associated with lameness in Holstein Friesian crossbred cows across both commercial and smallholder dairy production systems in Bengaluru Rural District of Karnataka, India.MethodsThe research encompassed six commercial dairy farms and 139 smallholder dairy farms, involving a total of 617 Holstein Friesian crossbred cattle. On-site surveys were conducted at the farms, employing a meticulously designed questionnaire. Lameness in dairy cattle was assessed subjectively using a locomotion scoring system. Both bivariate and binary logistic regression models were employed for risk assessment, while principal components analysis (PCA) was conducted to address the high dimensionality of the data and capture the underlying structure of the explanatory variables.ResultsThe overall lameness prevalence of 21.9% in commercial dairy farms and 4.6% in smallholder dairy farms. Various factors such as age, body weight, parity, body condition score (BCS), floor type, hock and knee injuries, animal hygiene, provision of hoof trimming, and the presence of hoof lesions were found to be significantly associated with lameness. Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that the odds of lameness in crossbred cows increased with higher parity, decreased BCS, presence of hard flooring, poor animal hygiene, and the existence of hoof lesions. These factors were identified as potential risk factors for lameness in dairy cows. Principal component analysis unveiled five components explaining 71.32% of the total variance in commercial farms and 61.21% in smallholder dairy farms. The extracted components demonstrated higher loadings of housing and management factors (such as hoof trimming and provision of footbath) and animal-level factors (including parity, age, and BCS) in relation to lameness in dairy cows.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that principal component analysis effectively reduces the dimensionality of risk factors. Addressing these identified risk factors for lameness is crucial for the strategic management of lameness in dairy cows. Future research in India should investigate the effectiveness of management interventions targeted at the identified risk factors in preventing lameness in dairy cattle across diverse environments.

Review: Goat and Sheep Meat Production in Indonesia

This review describes the production systems and products pertaining to goats and sheep (GS) in Indonesia. These small ruminant species are found across 38 provinces in Indonesia. Almost 99% of the GS are farmed by smallholders, with the animals either being housed in an enclosure (small shed near the farmer’s house) or in a mix of both grazing and confinement. The livestock are typically fed natural and/or artificial feed. Two sheep types, thin-tailed and fat-tailed are the most popular with smallholder producers, while Bali, Etawah, Boerawa, Jawa Randu Kosta, and Gembrong are the dominant goat breeds. As one of the biggest Muslim countries in the world, Indonesian production and consumption of GS is influenced by culture and religious systems. The Halal slaughter method applied is described, as are the religious/cultural festivals in Indonesia, which have a significant relationship on the GS demand and consumption, such as Eid al-Adha and Aqiqah. The preparation, processing, and consumption of GS meat in Indonesia are strongly influenced by the use of spices, being part of the Moluccas archipelago, also known as the “Spice islands” with over 30,000 species of spices grown. Some traditional meats and meat processing technologies in Indonesia are presented to provide insight into how GS meat is processed. The main challenges in the processing of GS meat in Indonesia and some current research on the development of GS production are presented in this paper. Implications: Goat and sheep belong to the most widely consumed meats in the world after pork, poultry, and beef. There are some reasons why GS meat has become one of the more popular protein choices for many families, of which its low-fat levels are one. GS meat is also considered one of the only meats with minimal religious taboos in the world. For these reasons, GS meat is also favored by Indonesian people in the most populous Muslim-majority country. However, information regarding goat and sheep in Indonesia is still lacking. This review aims to provide information on the distribution of GS in Indonesia over 38 provinces, the breed types that grow there, their production, and Indonesian consumption behavior, highlighting the religious festivals that cause the highest demand for these meats. This review provides information to the stakeholders of goat and sheep production chains.

TRANSFORMING INDIAN AGRICULTURE THROUGH FARMING INNOVATIONS

Contract farming has existed for a long time, taking different forms, such as a sharecropping contract that was initially regarded as a feudal form of agriculture because the markets were either absent or underdeveloped (Eswaran and Kotwal, 1985). Initially, contract farming was a common practice in developed countries, driven principally by concerns over food safety and quality (Otsuka et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2018; Bellemare and Bloem, 2018). Glover (1984) describes contract farming as an institutional arrangement with advantages for plantations and smallholder production. Farmers and buyers commonly use contract farming to make advance agreements on volume, specific requirements, delivery, and price.