Smallholder Farming Communities Research Articles

The Impact of Climate Variability on the Livelihoods of Smallholder Farmers in an Agricultural Village in the Wider Belfast Area, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of climate change on smallholder farmers in South Africa, particularly focusing on the relationship between agriculture and weather patterns. Understanding this connection is crucial for helping farmers adapt to changing climate conditions and improve their resilience and sustainability. This research analyses 33 years of climate data (1990–2023) from the Belfast weather station to identify long-term climate trends, seasonal shifts, and the frequency of extreme weather events. Statistical analysis, including the Mann–Kendall test, revealed significant changes in temperature, rainfall, and the intensity of extreme weather events, indicating that climate change is already affecting the region. Specifically, the research highlighted significant damage to agricultural infrastructure, such as greenhouses, due to climate-related wind events. This study emphasises the importance of using digital technologies to monitor weather patterns in real-time, aiding in decision-making, and enhancing agricultural efficiency. Additionally, it calls for further research into the social impacts of climate variability, including its effects on community cohesion, migration, and access to social services among smallholder farmers. These findings provide a foundation for developing effective interventions to support the resilience of smallholder farming communities in the face of climate change. Future studies need to consider how climate variability affects farmers’ abilities to access markets, both in terms of transport and product quality.

Information systems (IS) and smallholder farming in developing countries: A systematic literature review

In the context of the fourth industrial revolution, the potential of information systems (IS) to revolutionise smallholder farming practices and enhance sustainability is a topic of growing interest, particularly in developing countries. This systematic literature review examines the intersection of agriculture and IS to explore how technology adoption can help to transform small-scale, subsistence farming enterprises into profit-generating, sustainable small businesses, while at the same time addressing the unique challenges present in developing-world contexts. The review critically examines the potential barriers and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in adopting and effectively using IS solutions in their operations. Among other things, the review investigates the assumption of basic literacy in many IS theories, and the extent to which this assumption aligns with the reality of developing-world smallholder farming communities, where literacy levels and digital proficiency may be limited.

Agricultural Policy Reforms and their Effects on Smallholder Farmers: A Comprehensive Review

Agricultural policy reforms are critical in influencing the economic, social, and environmental conditions of smallholder farmers, who represent a significant portion of the agricultural workforce in developing countries. These reforms, implemented through various strategies such as market liberalization, subsidy adjustments, and land tenure reforms, have far-reaching implications. This review article delves into the multifaceted effects of agricultural policy reforms on smallholder farmers, providing a comprehensive analysis of their historical context, economic impacts, social outcomes, and environmental consequences. By examining the evolution of these policies from the pre-structural adjustment era to the present, we aim to shed light on both the successes and challenges faced by smallholder farmers. The review also highlights case studies from different regions, illustrating the diverse experiences of smallholder farmers under varying policy frameworks. Ultimately, this article offers policy recommendations designed to enhance the resilience and productivity of smallholder farming communities, ensuring sustainable development and food security in the face of global challenges such as climate change and economic volatility.

Do Community Capitals Influence Climate Adaptation? Critique of Financial, Physical, Human and Social Capital in the Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies among Smallholder Farming Community in Lamu County, Kenya

Purpose: This study aimed to establish a framework for testing the community capitals theory and assessing the empirical significance of financial, physical, human, and social capital in the adoption of climate-smart agriculture technologies. Materials and Methods: Data was collected through semi-structured questionnaires administered to 256 randomly selected household heads. An ordinal logistic regression model was employed to analyze the significance of community capitals in climate-smart agriculture adoption. The data is presented in tables. Findings: The results revealed several important findings. Access to finance has a significant positive association with Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P<0.001, OR=3.23). Input subsidies are also significantly positively associated with Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P=0.001, OR=3.66). Training shows a significant positive association with Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P<0.007, OR=2.03). Labor has a highly significant and positive relationship with Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P=0.001, OR=8.97). Interaction positively and significantly correlates with higher levels of Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P=0.021, OR=4.04). Additionally, empowerment demonstrates a significant positive association with Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption (P=0.006, OR=2.96). Notably, the model challenged the conventional view of finance and labor as independent determinants for climate-smart agriculture adoption, instead positioning them within a social context. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study suggests that climate action programs should prioritize social ties over investments in financial, physical, or human interventions to enhance climate-smart agriculture adoption and promote resilience. Lastly, combining the Community Capital Framework with Social Capital Theory offers a more detailed understanding of the factors influencing Climate-Smart Agriculture adoption, emphasizing the interaction between various types of capital and social dynamics.

Linkage mapping and genomic prediction of grain quality traits in tropical maize (Zea mays L.).

The suboptimal productivity of maize systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a pressing issue, with far-reaching implications for food security, nutrition, and livelihood sustainability within the affected smallholder farming communities. Dissecting the genetic basis of grain protein, starch and oil content can increase our understanding of the governing genetic systems, improve the efficacy of future breeding schemes and optimize the end-use quality of tropical maize. Here, four bi-parental maize populations were evaluated in field trials in Kenya and genotyped with mid-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Genotypic (G), environmental (E) and G×E variations were found to be significant for all grain quality traits. Broad sense heritabilities exhibited substantial variation (0.18-0.68). Linkage mapping identified multiple quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for the studied grain quality traits: 13, 7, 33, 8 and 2 QTLs for oil content, protein content, starch content, grain texture and kernel weight, respectively. The co-localization of QTLs identified in our research suggests the presence of shared genetic factors or pleiotropic effects, implying that specific genomic regions influence the expression of multiple grain quality traits simultaneously. Genomic prediction accuracies were moderate to high for the studied traits. Our findings highlight the polygenic nature of grain quality traits and demonstrate the potential of genomic selection to enhance genetic gains in maize breeding. Furthermore, the identified genomic regions and single nucleotide polymorphism markers can serve as the groundwork for investigating candidate genes that regulate grain quality traits in tropical maize. This, in turn, can facilitate the implementation of marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding programs focused on improving grain nutrient levels.

Hub‐and‐spoke social networks among Indonesian cocoa farmers homogenise farming practices

Abstract Smallholder farms support the livelihoods of 2.5 billion people and their decisions on how to manage their land has profound consequences for the environment and the food security of billions of people. However, farmers' values, norms and resulting management practices are usually not formed in isolation. Triangulating multiple analytical, modelling and simulation methods, we investigated if and how social influence exerted through peer‐to‐peer information exchange affect soil nutrition management among 2734 Indonesian smallholder cocoa farmers across 30 different villages. The results show that the relational structures of these village‐based social networks strongly relate to farmers' use of fertiliser. In villages with highly centralised networks (i.e. hub‐and‐spoke networks where one or very few farmers holds disproportionately central position in the village network), a large majority of farmers report the same fertiliser use, and that practice is typically to avoid using fertilisers. By contrast, in less centralised networks, fertiliser use varies widely. The observed community‐level distributions of fertiliser use can be most closely reproduced through simulations by complex contagion mechanisms in which social influence is only exerted by opinion leaders that are much more socially connected than others. However, even such leaders' abilities to influence others to change fertiliser use may be limited in practice. The combination of our quantitative and qualitative findings provides significant policy implications for development programs targeting smallholder farming communities. An important practical lesson is that common interventions which primarily engage socially central farmers may not be effective in stimulating desired transitions in social‐ecological systems. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Impact of Climate Variability on Child and Maternal Wasting among Smallholder Farming Communities in Malawi

Impact of Climate Variability on Child and Maternal Wasting among Smallholder Farming Communities in Malawi

Botanical biopesticides have an influence on tomato quality through pest control and are cost-effective for farmers in developing countries.

Synthetic insecticides heavily applied to manage agricultural pests are highly hazardous to the environment and non-target organisms. Their overuse through repeated treatments in smallholder farming communities is frequent. Botanical biopesticides are ideal for sustainable pest management in agricultural environments by keeping synthetic insecticide use at a minimum. Here we evaluated a locally prepared neem seed extract (NSE) alongside emamectin benzoate against both lepidopteran pests Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) and Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) on tomato Lycopersicon esculentum Mill under natural field conditions in Pakistan. We compared pest severity, fruit injury, quality, marketability, and cost:benefit ratio (CBR) between treatments. The concentration of azadirachtin A in the NSE was 26.5 ppm. NSE at 2% (20 mL/L) and the emamectin benzoate at the recommended field rate in Pakistan were sprayed weekly throughout the fruiting stage. The pest larvae were significantly more abundant on fruits than on flowers and leaves. Fruit injury and losses were significantly more important in untreated control compared to NSE and emamectin benzoate treatments. NSE efficacy varied with respect to the cultivars used and the seasons. Cultivar Eden harboured more pests than Adventa, and emamectin benzoate suppressed more pest individuals than NSE. Both the insecticidal treatments were comparable in terms of marketable yield productions as well as unmarketable, uninjured, and recovered fruit yields. NSE generated a higher CBR (1: 9.26) than emamectin benzoate (1: 3.23). NSE suppressed pests by acting as an antifeedant, similar to its synthetic counterpart. Smallholder growers can thus use NSE as a cost-effective solution in tomato pest management in Pakistan.

Medicinal plants of the upper Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda - a cultural crossroads

BackgroundThis paper presents a comparative inventory of medicinal plant taxa and their uses by smallholder farming communities of four cultures in the Aswa River catchment of northern Uganda, situated in the eastern Sudanian savanna parkland ecotype of sub-Saharan Africa. The purpose of the study was to document the ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants by the Lango, Acholi, Teso (Atesot) and Ethur (jo Abwor), in an historical moment before civil conflict and mass displacement of the respondent communities disrupted the inter-generational transmission of traditional technical knowledge within the study area.MethodsFollowing community consultations in four districts of northern Uganda during 1999–2000, interviews were conducted with holders of specialist knowledge on plants used as medicine on basis of a plant specimen allocated a voucher number and identified by the national herbarium. Use reports reflecting specific medicinal applications were compiled in aggregate to obtain a Relative Importance Index ranking. The commonality of medicinal taxa cited between each cultural interface was assessed by the Jaccard Index of Similarity, and the similarity of specific medicinal usage by taxon using Rahman’s Similarity Index.ResultsThe data collected from 112 respondents comprise 280 medicinal use reports describing 263 applications for 62 medical conditions, citing 108 taxa from 44 botanical families of which Fabaceae comprised 20% of all use reports. No earlier mention could be found to corroborate 72 use reports (27% of the total), representing medicinal indications as yet undocumented, and potentially worthy of investigation. The RI values ranged between 15 and 94%, with 13 taxa having RI values above 50%. The JI ratios indicate the highest degree of similarity in the plant taxa used as medicine (21%) between the Lango and Teso cultures who share a common origin; however, Rahman’s Similarity Index indicates the highest similarity of specific medicinal usage by taxon between the Lango and Acholi, who share a common language group through cultural assimilation over time. ConclusionsAs a comparative study, the results imply that cultural exchange and assimilation may be a greater driver of inter-cultural similarity of ethnopharmacological use of a given taxon, as compared to shared historical origins.

Design and Implementation of Internet of Things (IoT) Platform Targeted for Smallholder Farmers: From Nepal Perspective

Nepal, a lower-middle-income country in South Asia, predominantly features smallholder farming communities operating on modest land holdings. These smallholders often adhere to traditional farming methods, relying on familial labor, which has become increasingly inefficient in contemporary agricultural landscapes. To enhance their productivity and efficiency, smallholder farmers require affordable and accessible Internet of Things (IoT)-based systems. However, the prevailing IoT solutions in the market primarily cater to large-scale commercial enterprises, rendering them unsuitable for the specific needs and constraints faced by smallholder farmers. In response to this gap, we have introduced a cost-effective, customizable, scalable, and dependable IoT platform tailored expressly for smallholder farmers. This platform empowers them to visualize, monitor, and control real-time data pertaining to their crops, livestock, and other agricultural assets. To ascertain the efficacy and suitability of our proposed platform, we conducted a comparative analysis with existing counterparts such as Blynk IoT and ThingSpeak IoT, evaluating their respective features and application services against standard requirements. Additionally, we subjected our platform to rigorous server load testing, assessing crucial performance parameters including throughput, response time, user capacity, and data sampling rates. Over an observation period spanning an average of 339 days, our platform successfully processed and stored a substantial volume of data, encompassing 817,633 sensor messages, averaging 2412 messages per day, with a cumulative storage size of 14,238.28 KB. Extrapolating from these results, it is noteworthy that an A0 instance with 20 GB of cloud space can adequately accommodate 200 users at a rate of 100 MB per user, which is adequate for the smallholder needs. Furthermore, the purposed platform was deployed inside a polyhouse to perform off-season grafting of citrus plants. The achieved success rate of 84% closely approached the success rate of 90–95% observed during on-season grafting. These empirical findings, coupled with the extensive data gathered during our research, underscore the reliability and performance of our proposed IoT platform for smallholder farmers.

Text mining of veterinary forums for epidemiological surveillance supplementation

Web scraping and text mining are popular computer science methods deployed by public health researchers to augment traditional epidemiological surveillance. However, within veterinary disease surveillance, such techniques are still in the early stages of development and have not yet been fully utilised. This study presents an exploration into the utility of incorporating internet-based data to better understand smallholder farming communities within the UK, by using online text extraction and the subsequent mining of this data. Web scraping of the livestock fora was conducted, with text mining and topic modelling of data in search of common themes, words, and topics found within the text, in addition to temporal analysis through anomaly detection. Results revealed that some of the key areas in pig forum discussions included identification, age management, containment, and breeding and weaning practices. In discussions about poultry farming, a preference for free-range practices was expressed, along with a focus on feeding practices and addressing red mite infestations. Temporal topic modelling revealed an increase in conversations around pig containment and care, as well as poultry equipment maintenance. Moreover, anomaly detection was discovered to be particularly effective for tracking unusual spikes in forum activity, which may suggest new concerns or trends. Internet data can be a very effective tool in aiding traditional veterinary surveillance methods, but the requirement for human validation of said data is crucial. This opens avenues of research via the incorporation of other dynamic social media data, namely Twitter, in addition to location analysis to highlight spatial patterns.

Influence of the parent rock nature on the mineralogical and geochemical composition of ferralsols used for sedentary agriculture in the Paleoproterozoic Franceville sub-basin (Gabon)

The aim of this study was to assess the influence of parent rock nature on the mineralogical and geochemical properties of ferralsols used by sedentary subsistence farmers in the Proterozoic Franceville subbasin of Gabon. Thus, soils developed from cherts, black shales and sandstones were investigated for their mineralogical composition and their heavy metal contamination of topsoil using the X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results show that the dominant mineralogical assemblage is made of quartz, illite, kaolinite and smectite, and this is reflected in the major-element chemistry which include essentially SiO2 (46.4 - 89.2%), Al2O3 (4.3 - 19.8%) followed by Fe2O3 (0.7 - 15.3%), with highest amounts of SiO2 and lowest amounts of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 found in soils developed from sandstone. The geochemical data revealed some doleritic intrusions through the chert formations with highest values of Fe2O3 and TiO2 in the overlying soils. Results indicated serious health concern associated with a geogenic source of As, Ba, Cd, Cu, La, Pb, Rb, Th and U in soils developed from cherts and black shales. Consequently, only the uncontaminated soils developed from sandstone could be appropriate for smallholder farming communities.

Does climate information source matter in smallholder farmers' climate resilience? Comparative insights from Malawi and Ghana

Due to increasing climate variability and change, the need for more accessible, timely, and reliable climate information has risen, particularly in African rain-fed smallholder farming communities. Yet, studies on the role of information sources in climate resilience are limited. Given the plurality of climate information sources, it is uncertain which medium offers better chances to build resilience against the changing climate. To fill this gap, we employed quantitative survey data from smallholder agricultural households in the Mzimba District in Malawi (n = 1090) and the Upper West Region of Ghana (n = 1100). Our findings reveal that in Malawi, households whose primary source of climate information was the mass media (OR = 2.37; p ≤ 0.001) and external organizations (government, private sector, and nonprofit sector) (OR = 2.11; p ≤ 0.001) were over two times more likely to rate their resilience as good compared to those who relied primarily on self-experience. While in Ghana, interpersonal sources (other farmers, friends/relatives, special activities by the community) significantly increased a household's odds (OR = 3.46; p ≤ 0.001) of reporting good resilience, while external sources reduced farmers' likelihood of reporting climate resilience (OR = 0.06; p ≤ 0.001) compared to those who relied primarily on self-experience. Farmers in Malawi who practiced intercropping were also more likely to rate their resilience as good than those engaged in monocropping. The findings suggest that the relevance of information sources on climate change resilience is place-specific and that some sources may impede resilience-building if contextual factors are sidelined. This finding reaffirms the need for context-specific policies due to the heterogeneity of agrarian communities across Africa.

Unpacking the invisible complex realities: intersections of gender and marital status in determining the intrinsic vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change in Northwestern Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Studies in Ethiopia have shown how climate-induced impacts are experienced differently by male and female farmers, with women being generally more vulnerable. Yet, less is known about how vulnerability to climate-induced risks differs between men and women of different marital statuses Therefore, we applied an intersectionality framework to examine how the level of intrinsic vulnerability is mediated through gender and marital status. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CAPCA) was used to construct a household heads’ intrinsic vulnerability index. Drawing on a systematic random sample of 1602 respondents and based on logistic regression analysis, the study shows that, while a man’s marital status is a less important factor in determining his level of vulnerability to climate change, it is a key factor in the case of women. Compared to other women, female divorcees and widows are highly likely to be vulnerable to climate change in northwestern parts of Ethiopia. Integrating information about marital relationships, especially the neglected widows and divorcees into the design of interventions may help to better target potential beneficiaries among smallholder farming communities. Our study makes a unique contribution to the intersectionality literature in understanding the diversified experiences of vulnerable rural communities which are susceptible to climate-induced shocks.

Soil suitability assessment for sustainable intensification of maize production in the humid Savannah of Ghana

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), food security is a significant challenge due to unreliable rainfall and depleting soil fertility. Most of the soil resource in the sub-region which constitutes majority of the fields of smallholder farmers is degraded. Hence, there is a need to identify suitable soils for sustainable intensification. The objectives of this study were to: (i) evaluate the suitability and fertility constraints of soils and (ii) discuss the influence of soil properties on maize production in the Nkoranza (north and south) district. A total of sixty (60) soil samples were sampled from smallholder farms under careful consideration of topography and the spatial pattern of land use systems. The evaluation of soil suitability was carried out using climate (temperature and rainfall) and physico-chemical characteristics of soils for maize (Zea mays) production. The results indicated that soil texture varied from sandy loam to sandy clay loam. Soil organic carbon concentration (SOC) ranged between 0.55 and 2.02%. Total nitrogen (TN) and SOC were low in all soil types except in the Bediesi series (Haplic Luvisol). Base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+) were low and varied between soil types. Although climatic factors and physical properties were highly suitable (S1), more than half of the pedons were moderately suitable (S2). The soils functioned at a moderate capacity for maize production. The major limitations identified were sub-optimal and related to soil fertility (CEC). Pearson correlation revealed a relationship between parametric actual index (PAI) and parametric potential index (PPI; r = 0.940, p < 0.003) and between soil resilience index (SRI; r = 0.768, p < 0.037) and the relationship between these variables is a perfect correlation. Soil management is required to increase maize yield in the study area. Soil erosion prevention measures such as cover crops, mulching, organic manure (poultry), and mineral fertilizer application are recommended to improve soil fertility in the Nkoranza (north and south) district. This study can inform policies and interventions geared toward sustainable agricultural intensification. Land and soil are heterogeneous and any decision on intensification in this study accounted for the prevailing local conditions of the study area. Therefore, indexing soil suitability using climate (rainfall and temperature), physical land characteristics (topography, drainage) and chemical properties (pH, SOM, SOC, TN, Av. P, Av. K, etc.) of soil resources for sustainable intensification of maize is proposed for smallholder farming communities of Nkoranza (north and south) districts in the Forest-Savannah Transition Zone of Ghana.

Role of Indigenous and local knowledge in seasonal forecasts and climate adaptation: A case study of smallholder farmers in Chiredzi, Zimbabwe

Accessible, reliable and diverse sources of climate information are needed to inform climate change adaptation at all levels of society, particularly for vulnerable sectors such as smallholder farming. Globally, many smallholder farmers use Indigenous knowledge (IK) and local knowledge (LK) to forecast weather and climate; however, less is known about how the use of these forecasts connects to decisions and actions for reducing climate risks. We examined the role of IK and LK in seasonal forecasting and the broader climate adaptation decision-making of smallholder farmers in Chiredzi, Zimbabwe. The data were collected from a sample of 100 smallholder farmers. Seventy-three of the 100 interviewed farmers used IK and LK weather and climate forecasts, and 32% relied solely on IK and LK forecasts for climate adaptation decision-making. Observations of cuckoo birds, leaf-sprouting of Mopane trees, high summer temperatures, and Nimbus clouds are the main indicators used for IK and LK forecasts. The use of IK and LK climate forecasts was significantly positively associated with increasing farmer age and farmland size. Farmers using IK and LK forecasts implemented, on average, triple the number of adaptation measures compared with farmers not using IK and LK. These findings demonstrate the widespread reliance of farmers on IK and LK for seasonal forecasts, and the strong positive link between the use of IK and LK and the implementation of climate adaptation actions. This positive association between IK and LK usage and the implementation of adaptation actions may be widespread in smallholder farming communities throughout Africa and globally. Recognition and inclusion of IK and LK in climate services is important to ensure their continued potential for enhancing climate change adaptation.

Determinants of Performance in Smallholder Farmer Groups in Uganda

The performance of farmer groups is critical for the success of the farmer-led Agricultural Extension approach currently used in Uganda. This study examines factors affecting performance of farmer groups accessing agricultural extension and advisory services from the National Agricultural Advisory Services in Eastern Uganda. The study collected data 200 members of 19 farmer groups in Eastern Uganda. Performance of farmer groups was the dependent variable, which was perceived to be influenced by individual members’ objectives, participation culture, power distance, structure of task, perceived equity, reward allocation and participation in group activities. Farmer group performance had a statistically significant positive relationship with power distance and perceived equity. Group participation culture and structure of tasks had a statistically negative relationship with group performance. Members tended to deflect group losses to factors beyond the seasonality of group activities, quality of farm inputs, and poor training delivered by advisory service providers. The advisory service providers and farmer group members need to use the political and social capital possessed by the local leadership, groups and community members for enhancing support and collective participation of the community in farmer groups. Since farmer groups are a sub-set of wider community, this empirical study brings into perspective the role of community culture in influencing performance of farmer groups in smallholder farming communities.

Key Regional Problems of the Contract Farming in the Republic of Maldives

Abstract. Introduction. An agricultural sector in the Republic of Maldives mostly consists of smallholder farming communities which are highly restricted by low productivity and unavailability of natural resources. The AgroNAT contract farming was implemented to address this challenge but so far does not provide the expected results across the agricultural regions Purpose. This research study looked into assessing and explaining the resemblances and differences observed in the analyzed agricultural regions 1, 2, and 3 regarding categories of gender disparity and farming population age, access to land resources, markets, and finance. Results. Total of over 1200 farmers on 13 islands were interviewed to specify key influential factors of their farming activities. To check the study hypotheses, we utilized the Chi-square Test for Independence. It confirmed strong resemblances of regions 1 and 2 by gender disparity and farming population age in favor of male farm heads and farmers over 40 years old. In region 3 there are more females actively involved in the farming activities. The research findings also revealed that around 27% of the farming population in region 3 are the young aged below 40 who demonstrate essential interest in new agricultural technologies and are better educated in financial aspects. The research clarified that regions 1 and 2 are more affected by the indicators of `No arable land` and `Land tenure insecurity`. Whereas regions 2 and 3 appeared to be similar by the indicators of `Started farming` and `No arable land`. All the regions resemble by the access to finance and markets. However, the focus group discussion revealed that farmers in region 3 are more efficient in using financing opportunities provided by the government and private sectors. Whereas the logistic and transport options are more beneficial for regions 1 and 2 as their islands are closer to the capital city. Conclusions. The study identified the weak spots and advantages of each agricultural region and recommended ways on how to increase efficiency and effectiveness of their contract farming.

Strengthening climate adaptation in the northern region of Ghana: insights from a stakeholder analysis

ABSTRACT Climate change significantly impacts agriculture. Building an informed and collaborative process among stakeholders remains vital in minimizing climate risks and building climate-adaptive and resilient agricultural systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). However, stakeholders’ involvement and collaboration in agriculture decision-making are framed by institutional, power, and resource dynamics, often ignoring vulnerable stakeholders most susceptible to climate shocks. These collaborative dynamics are less studied in the climate adaptation literature, especially in the context of Ghana and SSA. This study promotes stakeholder engagement and collaboration in climate-adaptive and conservation agriculture (CA) by examining the influence of and relationship dynamics among key stakeholders in the northern region of Ghana (NRG). Drawing from the normative stakeholder theory and literature on climate adaptation intervention, we use multiple qualitative research methods (e.g. brainstorming, semi-structured interviews, and focus group sessions) to profile and explore stakeholders’ roles, interests, and collaboration in CA and adaptation interventions. Our findings suggest that collaborations in CA in these smallholder farming communities are often fragmented, providing few collaboration advantages to smallholder farmers. Where collaboration occurs, it is often characterized by redundancy or duplication of roles and functions performed by stakeholders, poor coordination among key government actors, or by conflictual relationships among non-governmental organizations (NGOs); relationships amongst stakeholders are often driven by conflicting interests and asymmetric power differentials. These findings suggest that measures to engage stakeholders must carefully consider aligning stakeholders’ interests and addressing power differentials, which are necessary to minimize conflicts in collaborative governance arrangements for adaptation and CA. Key policy insights Conservation agriculture (CA) creates resilient agricultural systems for enhanced food security and poverty alleviation. Stakeholder roles, interests, and collaborations should be identified to understand who should be included to establish a collaborative connection for adaptation planning. Policymakers should actively engage stakeholders, including smallholder farmers, in the design and implementation of climate adaptation planning and interventions. As the principal resource for adaptation planning and decision-making is the people themselves, engaging them will leverage their knowledge, experiences, and expertise for the design of effective adaptation policies and ensure effective implementation. Collaborative action involving stakeholders can promote effective action on climate change by fostering consensus and building local ability and expertise to collectively adopt adaptation measures.

COVID-19, climate shocks, and food security linkages: evidence and perceptions from smallholder farming communities in Tanzania

AbstractInsights on the indirect effects of the COVID-19 pandemic are critical for designing and implementing policies to alleviate the food security burden it may have caused, and for bolstering rural communities against similar macroeconomic shocks in the future. Yet estimating the causal effects of the pandemic is difficult due to its ubiquitous nature and entanglement with other shocks. In this descriptive study, we combine high-resolution satellite imagery to control for plot-level rainfall with household socio-economic panel data from 2014, 2016, 2019 and 2020, to differentiate the effect of the pandemic from climatic shocks on food security in Morogoro, Tanzania. We find evidence of decreased incomes, increased prices of staple foods, and increased food insecurity in 2020 relative to previous years, and link these changes to the pandemic by asking households about their perceptions of COVID-19. Respondents overwhelmingly attribute economic hardships to the pandemic, with perceived impacts differing by asset level.