Smallholder Farmers In South Africa Research Articles

Symbiotic interaction of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) landraces with rhizobia spp. from other legume hosts reveals promiscuous nodulation

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is one of the most underutilized and neglected legume crop used for human consumption worldwide. Unlike the common food and forage legumes, the symbiotic properties of this legume have not been studied sufficiently. This study is designed to investigate the nodulation compatibility and symbiotic performance of twelve landraces of V. subterranea with five different Rhizobia species isolated from the nodules of other legumes under glasshouse conditions. Pre-germinated seeds of each landrace planted in sterile river sand medium were inoculated with 108 cfu/ml of each rhizobium inoculum suspension and monitored with regular watering using nitrogen free Hoagland's solution for six weeks. The taxonomy and phylogeny of the five rhizobia species was determined using nucleotide sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA and recA (DNA recombination protein) genes. A concatenated multiple sequence alignment was used to construct an MLSA tree to further analyze the phylogeny of the strains. Significant differences were observed among individual bambara genotypes and rhizobia strains in terms of nodule numbers and dry weight, as well as plant biomass. Statistical analysis showed that Rhizobia strains XBD2 and XS34 identified as Bradyrhizobium zhangiangens and B. centrosematis respectively exhibited the highest nodulation compatibility in terms of nodule number and nodule dry weight with one or more bambara groundnut landraces. This study demonstrated that V. subterannea does not show preference to unique rhizobia, confirming that they are promiscuously nodulated by more than one species of rhizobium belonging mainly to the cowpea miscellany cross inoculation group. The findings of this study also provide insights into the selection and development of appropriate low cost rhizobia inoculants in the sustainable production of this underutilized legume for use by smallholder farmers in South Africa.

Relationships between Farmer Psychological Profiles and Farm Business Performance amongst Smallholder Beef and Poultry Farmers in South Africa

Beef cattle and poultry are critically important livestock for improving household food security and alleviating poverty amongst smallholder farmers in South Africa. In this paper, our goal is to examine the relationships between farmer psychological profiles and farm business performance of commercially oriented beef cattle and poultry smallholder farmers in South Africa. We employ a multipronged interdisciplinary approach to test the theory of planned behaviour and its relationship to farm business performance. First, a behavioural science-informed survey instrument was employed to collect data from randomly selected farmer participants in two major beef and poultry projects undertaken by the authors. Second, a latent profile analysis was used to identify the psychological profiles of those farmers. Third, traditional and estimated indicators of farm business performance were obtained using descriptive and econometric-based approaches, including logistic regression and stochastic frontier analyses. The estimated farm business performance indicators were correlated with the psychological profiles of farmers. Results from the latent profile analysis showed three distinct profiles of beef and poultry farmers clearly differentiated by their ability to control and succeed in their farm business enterprises; criteria included attitude, openness to ideas, personality, perceived capabilities, self-efficacy, time orientation, and farm- and personal-related concerns. Profile 1 (‘Fatalists’) scored themselves negatively on their ability to control and succeed in their business enterprises. The majority of farmers were generally neutral about their ability to control and succeed in their businesses (Profile 2, ‘Traditionalists’), while a relatively small group of farmers were confident of their ability to succeed (Profile 3, ‘Entrepreneurs’). We found evidence of significant differences in farm business performance amongst the different profiles of farmers. As far as we can determine, this is the only study to have assessed farm business performance based on a differentiation of farmers’ psychological profiles. Our results provide a framework to further investigate whether particular types of on-farm interventions and training methods can be customised for different segments of farmers based on their preferred learning styles.

Factors Influencing Rooibos Tea Certification and Quality Control for Smallholder Farmers in South Africa.

This study aimed to identify factors that influence the decisions of rooibos farmers in South Africa to implement certification and quality assurance systems. The study was conducted in the Western Cape region of South Africa. A structured questionnaire was distributed to 300 farmers in the form of interviews. In addition, an analysis of previously published data was also used. Results showed that membership in an association, land tenure, rooibos tea farm size, and education level were the main determinants of implementing certifications and quality assurance systems. Membership in the association and land tenure significantly negatively affected the adoption of certification. In contrast, farm size and level of education, translating to knowledge of certification systems, tended to have a significant positive effect on adoption. Continuous education, awareness of the process of certification and quality assurance systems, and the formation of farmers' support systems are recommended to improve the impact of smallholder rooibos farmers in the industry.

Sorghum as a household food and livelihood security crop under climate change in South Africa: A review

Extreme events, declining rainfall and increasing temperatures under climate change threaten smallholder households’ food and livelihoods security. The potential of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) to contribute to food security and livelihoods of smallholders in South Africa has not been realised, despite its resilience to heat and drought, due to its marginalisation in research, breeding, the scale of production, and policy support. Consequently, to reduce vulnerability and boost sorghum’s position as a key climate change adaptation crop, in this review we examined some biophysical, socio-economic, socio-cultural and institutional barriers that constrain its production and performance on smallholder farms in South Africa. We further suggest pertinent issues to be addressed to improve production and productivity on smallholder farms. Increasing awareness, policy development and support, and capacitation of extension services, as well as improving market access, agronomic and cultural practices, and availability of more locally adapted sorghum varieties are requisite factors in addressing the prevailing constraints limiting sorghum production. Furthermore, tailored and site-specific studies at farm and landscape level are imperative for informed management and decision support. Thus, an integrated and multidisciplinary approach is key in fostering significant improvement in sorghum production and performance in smallholder systems in South Africa to reduce climate change vulnerability. Significance: Sorghum has the potential to bolster food and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Socio-economic, socio-cultural and biophysical challenges limit sorghum production and performance in South Africa. An integrated and multidisciplinary approach is required to optimise the opportunities to improve sorghum production and performance in South Africa.

Dietary and agricultural adaptations to drought among smallholder farmers in South Africa: A qualitative study

Building resilience to environmental change is an integral part of long-term climate adaptation planning and local policy. There is an increased understanding of the impact of climate change on global crop production however, little focus has been given to local adaptation pathways and rural smallholder community responses, especially regarding food security. It is becoming increasingly evident that local level decision-making plays a vital role in reducing vulnerability to environmental change. This research aimed to qualitatively investigate coping and adaptive strategies adopted by smallholder farming households to respond to the impacts of drought in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Focus group discussions (n = 7) consisting of 5–9 participants and individual interviews (n = 9) using pre-tested topic guides, involving a total of 57 adults were conducted in rural areas of drought-affected districts: Msinga, Richmond and Umbumbulu of KwaZulu-Natal, in July 2018. The data were analysed using thematic analysis in NVivo 12. Thematic analysis identified three principal themes: 1. Perceived effects of droughts on the local food system and diets; 2. Current coping strategies; and 3. Enablers for successful adaptation. All sites reported a change in food consumption habits, with the majority perceiving drought to be the main driver behind a shift from vegetable-based to starch-based diets and decreased animal source food consumption. Only short-term coping strategies were implemented across the study sites. However, knowledge of long-term adaptation strategies existed but was unattainable to most respondents. Recommendations of perceived context-specific long-term adaptation strategies that could be used at a local scale were communicated by the respondents. However, they would need external help to actualize them. A need exists to support smallholder communities’ short-term response methods to drought to achieve more holistic resilience and successful adaptation. Short-term adaptation strategies, if implemented alone, often have significant trade-offs with longer-term adaptation and building resilience. This study highlights the need for targeted, contextualised policy solutions to improve smallholder productivity during drought through a strategic combination of both short- and longer-term adaptation measures, i.e. short-term adaptation should be guided by a long-term adaptation strategy. Proper planning, including the use of climate scenarios combined with information on nutritional status, is needed to develop context-specific and transformative adaptation strategies. These strategies should aim to strengthen resilience at a local level and should be included as policy recommendations.

Factors Influencing the Extent of the Commercialization of Indigenous Crops Among Smallholder Farmers in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa

Smallholder farmers encounter countless challenges that not only restrict them from maximizing market opportunities but also limit their access to the markets. This paper aims to achieve a thorough understanding of the factors that influence the market participation of indigenous crops by smallholder farmers while also analyzing the extent of market participation in South Africa. An analyzable sample size of 1,520 was used for the study. Household commercialization index (HCI), T-test, description analysis, and a double hurdle model with quasi-maximum likelihood fractional response model were employed to analyze the commercialization and extent of commercialization among indigenous crops by smallholder farmers in South Africa. The study demonstrated that a farmer's decision to participate in the market is highly dependent on gender, off-farm income, access to market information, and a family member being infected by HIV. Factors such as household size and access to the market had statistical significance in the extent of market participation by smallholder farmers. While we recommend the need to intensify appropriate training for farmers and extension workers involved in the area of indigenous crops, it is also important that indigenous crops are given the necessary considerations by the government and research institutions so that their demand in the market could increase. There is a need to develop a clear support plan for the few farmers that have decided to be involved in the farming of indigenous crops even though they are not highly marketable. On the other hand, there is also a need for consumer awareness campaigns in South Africa, on the income and nutritional benefits of indigenous crops.

Research Progress and Conceptual Insights on Drought Impacts and Responses among Smallholder Farmers in South Africa: A Review

Drought is a natural phenomenon which can cause widespread socio-economic and environmental impacts. Recent predictions suggest that drought frequency and intensity will increase in Southern Africa; therefore, there is a need for more scientific information on drought impacts and responses by vulnerable groups such as smallholder farmers. This scoping review examines the current state of research and conceptual insights on the impacts of drought on and responses by smallholder farmers in rural and urban settings in South Africa. We used three bibliographic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOHost) to search for peer-reviewed literature published on South Africa. In total, 18 articles were reviewed, and information on drought impacts and responses among smallholder farmers was analysed and synthesised. Although most of the reviewed papers identified several socio-economic (e.g., loss of livestock, income, and employment) and environmental (e.g., loss of grazing land and vegetation) impacts of drought, the identified impacts were rarely quantified, and there is a lack of analytical depth of these impacts. Smallholder farmers in South Africa implement several drought responses, and these were categorised based on (i) changes in local practices and lifestyles e.g., practising conservation agriculture, (ii) structural measures e.g., government relief programmes, and (iii) technical interventions e.g., rain harvesting. None of the reviewed papers reported on the impacts of and responses to drought on smallholder farmers in urban settings. Overall, the review noted that the literature on drought in South Africa lacks detailed quantification and analysis of drought impacts and responses, the urban drought context is poorly understood, and there is a lack of clarity on the distinction between adaptation and mitigation strategies. Improving our understanding of drought impacts across a rural-urban gradient is important if responses are to effectively reduce smallholder farmer drought vulnerability.

Constraints to Cultivation of Medicinal Plants by Smallholder Farmers in South Africa

Growing demand for therapeutic products from indigenous medicinal plants has led to increased interest in its cultivation, which presents a viable option for improving smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, as well as sustaining the availability of these resources for future generations. Serious bottlenecks however exist for subsistent farmers in the cultivation of these valuable plants. It was pertinent to probe whether the cultivation of medicinal plants provides feasible solutions to rural poverty, while effectively conserving threatened indigenous biodiversity. The paper employed a comprehensive review of existing literature to explore issues constraining smallholder farmers from involvement in a potentially lucrative plant value chain. Findings indicate challenges such as inadequate domestication of valuable plants species, continued over-harvesting from wild populations, poor knowledge of required agronomic practices, low efficacy perception regarding derivatives from cultivated plants, among others. These constraints occur alongside the conservation-oriented strategy driven by international conservation agencies and wholly adopted by the South African government. Recommendations to improve smallholder involvement in the cultivation of medicinal plants include support to research and extension, targeted inducement to smallholders, contracting and off-take agreements, aimed at promoting an alternative poverty-alleviation-focused economic development strategy. The review adds to the conceptual discourse related to plant diversity, resource conservation, poverty alleviation, and economic development

Correlation and Path Coefficient Analysis for Seed Yield and Agronomic Traits of Newly Introduced Pigeon Pea Genotypes in South Africa

Pigeon pea is an important source of protein for smallholder farmers in South Africa. The average seed yield per hectare ranges from 0.5 to 1 tonne due to the use of un-improved varieties that succumb to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Understanding the relationship between seed yield and agronomic traits in a genetically diverse germplasm collection is a prerequisite for developing an efficient selection and breeding program. This study determined the relationship between seed yield and agronomic traits to identify key traits for selection. Two separate experiments involving seven short and six medium duration pigeon pea genotypes were planted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD), each with three replications. Agronomic traits, including yield and its components’ genotype mean data was subjected to correlation, path coefficient and stepwise regression analyses. The results showed a strong positive and significant correlation between number of pods per plant and seed yield in both medium and short duration genotypes. The number of pods per plant had a high direct effect on seed yield in both medium and short duration with values of (0.43) and (0.63) respectively. Number of branches and pod length exhibited high direct effect (0.30-0.99) for medium duration. However, seed yield per plant was an important predictor of seed yield in short duration while seed yield per plant, 100 seed weight and number of seeds per pod were key predictors of seed yield in medium duration genotypes. Therefore, these traits should be targeted for seed yield improvement in Pigeon pea.

Improving the Food and Nutritional Security of Smallholder Farmers in South Africa: Evidence from the InnovAfrica Project

This article highlights evidence and lessons learned from the InnovAfrica project conducted by the Agricultural Research Council in collaboration with other international organizations between 2017 and 2021. This project aimed to test and upscale best-bet Sustainable Agricultural Intensification (SAI) practices through Multi-Actor Platforms (MAPs) and improved dissemination strategies across six African countries (viz. Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, South Africa and Tanzania). The goal of the project was to improve the food and nutritional security of smallholder farmers in Africa. The article briefly discusses some of the key challenges that smallholder agriculture is facing, results from the agricultural interventions brought in by the InnovAfrica project, evidence-based actions and policy recommendations to improve the sustainable agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers in the South African case study. The study showed that SAI practices increased crop yields and build climate-resilient farming communities. It is recommended that the promotion of SAI practices should be supported by enabling institutions and conducive policies that will enhance access to inputs, market linkages, improved access to credit and good agricultural lands, the establishment of functional farmer groups and participatory learning models. These recommendations can be used by the government and other agencies to develop effective interventions to improve food and nutrition security.

RETRACTED: Climate change perception and impact of on-farm demonstration on intensity of adoption of adaptation strategies among smallholder farmers in South Africa

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal ( https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal ). This article has been retracted at the request of the Editors-in-Chief. The article duplicates significant parts of several papers by some of the same authors, particularly one which has already appeared in Land Use Policy, 99, 104858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104858 . One of the conditions of submission of a paper for publication is that authors declare explicitly that the paper has not been previously published and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. The editors acknowledge that the material was appropriately cited. Nonetheless the demonstrated degree of overlap represents self-plagiarism, with insufficient additional scientific contribution. As such this article represents a misuse of the scientific publishing system. The scientific community takes a very strong view on this matter. Apologies are offered to readers of the journal that this was not detected during the submission process.

A Typology of the Level of Market Participation among Smallholder Farmers in South Africa: Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces.

Smallholder farmers face several challenges that limit their access to markets and prevent them from taking advantage of market opportunities. This study sought to provide observed information on households' involvement in the output market and to analyse the determinants of the level of market participation among smallholder farmers in South Africa. Data (secondary) for this study were collected from a total of 1520 respondents who were selected through stratified random sampling. Descriptive statistics, t-test and a double-hurdle model were used to analyse factors influencing smallholder farmers' decisions regarding participation in the agricultural market. The first-hurdle equation of the double-hurdle model showed that gender of the household, family member working on the farm, wealth index, and agricultural assistance had a positive significant impact on the decision of smallholder farmers to participate in the market, while household age and family member with HIV had a negative significant impact. The results of the second-hurdle model showed marital status, educational level of household, wealth index, and access to agricultural assistance had a negative significant effect on the extent of market participation among smallholder farmers, while household size, household age, and family member with HIV had a positive significant impact. The suggestions emanating from the results as to what factors need to be addressed to encourage smallholder farmers to participate in the market indicate that there is a need for government to hire sufficient and skilled extension workers who understand the market related issues. With the help of extension workers and policymakers, government need to organize smallholder farmers into groups that are easy to manage, train, and support. Smallholder farmers' groups should have their farmers registered, visible, and easily accessible for coordinated government support services. They also need to do more workshops in rural areas to encourage young people to be involved in agriculture. This will lead to sustainable production, alleviation of poverty, improvement of the economy, and food security.

Psychological capital and climate change adaptation: Empirical evidence from smallholder farmers in South Africa.

There are calls for better empirical models to inform climate change adaptation in smallholder agriculture. Hitherto adaptation studies have failed to comprehensively integrate non-cognitive behavioural factors (e.g. psychological capital), and there is also no common framework for measuring non-cognitive abilities of smallholder farmers. Hence, this study is the first attempt to assess how psychological capital affects climate change adaptation amongst smallholder farmers. The study estimated the multivariate probit regression model using data collected from 328 smallholder farmers in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. The results show an association between some psychological capital indicators and smallholder adaptation decisions. Social networks, having multiple farming objectives, access to credit and the type of farmer (irrigators vs. non-irrigators) were also significant in determining smallholders’ adaptation decisions. In conclusion, the study recommends the need for practical ways for enhancing smallholders’ endowment with key non-cognitive abilities. There is also a need for researchers to develop a comprehensive framework for assessing non-cognitive factors critical for climate change adaptation. This will improve the use of positive psychology theories to advance the literature on climate change adaptation. Support should also be provided to communities facing higher risks of climate change adaptation. More focus should also be given to improve smallholder farmers’ ability to adapt, including access to affordable credit. The role of social networks in information sharing remains critical, and hence their promotion should be prioritised. The findings on multiple objectives in farming were unique to climate change adaptation research, and hence the indicator should be considered in future similar studies.

Enhancing the adoption of climate-smart technologies using public-private partnerships: lessons from the WEMA case in South Africa

Climate-smart agricultural technological innovations have the potential to reduce climate change impacts on agriculture. Due to several barriers, their current rate of adoption and diffusion is low. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have the potential to facilitate technology development and dissemination to smallholder farmers. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of the water efficient maize for Africa (WEMA) project in enhancing technology adoption by smallholder farmers in South Africa. This study explores how PPPs enhance technology adoption and highlights the challenges faced within PPPs using WEMA case. A critical analysis, involving iterative process helped to construct a comprehensive narrative. We found that disputed outcomes, stakeholder concerns, shortage of seeds, disinclination of local companies to market new seeds, upkeep of previous relationships, contractual arrangements and high level of expertise and skills required from farmers were the main factors that affected the efficacy and impact of WEMA on the targeted output and beneficiaries.

Effect of cutting height on non-structural carbohydrates, biomass production and mortality rate of pigeon peas

Inadequate nutrition limits small-scale livestock production by smallholder farmers in South Africa but can be addressed by the introduction of woody fodder species. Cutting woody plants to harvest fodder affects their productivity and thus it is necessary to determine the optimum cutting height. Cutting affects the productivity and survival of woody plants because it alters concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates, which are used to support their recovery. Since pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is not widely grown in South Africa and is not managed as a pruned hedgerow, there was a need to investigate the effect of cutting height under local conditions, especially in areas that experience frost. The trial was established in November 2016, ran over two growing seasons (2016/2017 and 2017/2018) and concluded in August 2018. The treatments comprised three silvopastoral systems with Panicum maximum planted between pigeon pea hedgerows that were cut at 60 cm and 90 cm above the ground, or left uncut and sole P. maximum. Over the two year period, the pigeon pea plants cut at 90 cm above ground produced significantly more leaf, twig and total biomass than the plants cut at 60 cm. Cutting height also had a significant effect on the percentage twig, with pigeon pea plants cut at 90 cm having significantly higher percentage twig than those cut at 60 cm (P 0.05). In July 2018 there were a number of days with temperatures below 0 °C. Prior to this no mortalities had been observed, but the frost events resulted in die-off. The mortality rates were determined in August 2018 when it was clear which of the shrubs had clearly died. The shrub mortality rates were higher for pruned relative to unpruned shrubs, but the effect was not significant (P > 0.05). It was concluded that the choice of cutting height is important for maximising browse production. Future research should consider the effect of pruning on non-structural carbohydrate concentration and total pool in the roots to better understand the reasons for reduced production and shrub mortalities.

Classification and characterisation of smallholder farmers in South Africa: a brief review

The South African agricultural sector has experienced various transformation processes over the past 25 years, from a predominantly white commercial sector to a black focused sector with an emphasis on smallholder farming. The government is committed to supporting the smallholder farming sector through interventions that include land reform and access to water, amongst others. Despite these efforts, smallholder farmers remain vulnerable, especially during drought periods. Smallholder farmers are not homogeneous; instead, they are diverse, and their farming needs also differ according to their livelihood needs. Due to the diversity of smallholder farmers, it is difficult for the government to effectively respond to their needs. The 2015–2018 drought is a case in point. This paper assesses the challenges of defining and classifying smallholder farmers in South Africa. The complex Western Cape classification system is presented as a case study. The study concludes that there is a need for a simpler method of grouping the smallholder farmers based on their livelihoods to develop relevant support systems.

Prevalent Constraints Towards Production and Commercialization of Cattle Owned by Smallholder Farmers in South Africa – A Review

Prevalent Constraints Towards Production and Commercialization of Cattle Owned by Smallholder Farmers in South Africa – A Review

Pigeonpea Yield and Water Use Efficiency: A Savior under Climate Change-Induced Water Stress

Frequent droughts have threatened the crop yields and livelihoods of many smallholder farmers in South Africa. Pigeonpea can be grown by farmers to mitigate the impacts of droughts caused by climate change. An experiment was conducted at Fountainhill Farm from January 2016 to December 2017. The trial examined grain yield in addition to water use efficiency (WUE) of pigeonpea intercropped with maize versus sole pigeonpea and maize. A randomized complete block design, replicated three times, was used. Soil water tension was measured at 20, 50, and 120 cm within plots. The highest and lowest soil water tension was recorded at 20 m and 120 m respectively. Combined biomass and grain yield were significantly different: pigeonpea + maize (5513 kg ha−1) > pigeonpea (3368 kg ha−1) > maize (2425 kg ha−1). A similar trend was observed for WUE and land equivalent ratio (LER), where pigeonpea + maize outperformed all sole cropping systems. The inclusion of pigeonpea in a traditional mono-cropping system is recommended for smallholder farmers due to greater WUE, LER and other associated benefits such as food, feed and soil fertility amelioration, and it can reduce the effects of droughts induced by climate change.

A decision support system for institutional support to farmers in the face of climate change challenges in Limpopo province

Smallholder farmers in South Africa continue to be affected by the changing climate despite the existence of support to improve their adaptive capacity. This study focused on the institutional support systems and support types available to farmers in agro-ecological zones of Limpopo Province and assessed support types best suited to each area. Six hundred farmers were purposively sampled across the agro-ecological zones of Limpopo and interviewed. Support types looked at included monetary, machinery, seeds, educational support and others (irrigation scheme, animals, fertilizer, pesticides). Supporting institutions included Agro finance institutions, DAFF, Banks, and NGOs. Results showed that 70.01% of farmers received support from DAFF 25.60% from NGO's and 4.39% from Agro finance institutions. The most number of support received was two types 33.3% of the farmers. The result from the ANOVA showed that there were no significant differences in the level of difficulty experienced by farmers in accessing the various support institutions across the agro-ecological zones. In terms of the various support types received, there was a statistically significant difference in seeds (p = 0.002 < α = 0.05) and educational (p = 0.0001 < α = 0.05) support received between the different areas. Furthermore, the support needs varied across zones with farmers in arid-zone needing machinery, education, seeds and lastly monetary support while the semi-arid zone needed machinery, education, others, seeds, monetary and the humid, machinery, education, others, money and seeds. It is therefore recommended that support for farmers should be location-specific in order to enhance the adaptive capacity of an area and not be based only on the availability of certain support. There is a need for proper coordination between institutions in their aim to assist farmers to cope with climate change.

English

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