Smallest Entity Research Articles

Perbedaan Teori Organisme Sel Prokariotik, Eukariotik Dan Virus

As the smallest unit of life, a person has the ability to function independently of himself to maintain his survival. The smallest entity that has the ability to reproduce and divide is a cell. The two types of cell architecture are eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Plant cells will also be discussed apart from that. Plant cells will be closed separately even though they are eukaryotic and have special organelles. Every biological process is cellular and controlled. As a result, as long as all basic needs are met, the cell can operate independently. Organisms, or living things, consist of many cells (multicellular) or one cell (unicellular), such as bacteria, archaea, fungi, and protozoa. Viruses are microscopic organisms that exist outside cells. Viruses are obligate parasites because viruses do not have the cellular machinery needed for reproduction, so viruses can only reproduce in living things by entering and exploiting their cells.

Desa Anti Politik Uang (Money Politik) sebagai Strategi Antisipasi Pilkada Curang Tahun 2024 Provinsi Gorontalo

The village is the smallest entity with its strategic position in holding regional elections which is vulnerable to the practice of money politics. Project mark ups, vote buying, bribery, gratuities constitute political corruption when elected as leader. The impact of the regional elections is that they do not produce authentic leaders for the welfare of their citizens. The aim of the research is to build an anti-money politics village as a strategy to anticipate fraudulent regional elections in 2024. This research uses a socio-legal research approach with literature study techniques and in-depth interviews. The research results show that the practice of money politics is influenced by several factors and to minimize these factors, an anti-money politics village model must be formed, one of which is through literacy or community forum-based education.

How to measure embodied intelligence?

Embodied intelligence (EI) summarizes design approaches that give robots efficient physical interaction with their surrounding environment. EI has, to date, found an extensive descriptive treatment yet lacks universal metrics. Could we quantify EI? What would be the EI analog to intelligence quotient (IQ) in humans? We first suggest an intelligent unit (intel-unit) as the smallest entity that displays program execution beyond simple stimuli-responsiveness. The emergence of EI by situatedness of encoded physical agents in an environment is explored in three case studies. First, an awn of a wild oat – a non-living structure in nature that satisfies all robot’s descriptions – is analyzed in terms of material-level intelligence. Next, a jocular quantitative scale found with a popular gadget – the ‘fortune teller fish’ – is given treatment in the EI context. Finally, the learned and summarized EI principles are tested on a well-known object with perceived intelligence yet lacking a consensual robotic description – a knitted woollen sweater. We confirm the necessity of treating environment interactions in expressions and definitions of EI, as situatedness is central in defining functionality. Universal metrics would identify non-intuitive representations of EI and lead from empirical to model-based design of unconventional robots. Robots that engage situatedness provide a physical interface to artificial intelligence, similar to our bodies communicating with our brains.

Dual Convolutional Neural Network Classifier with Pyramid Attention Network for Image-Based Kinship Verification

A family is the smallest entity that formed the world with specific characteristics. The characteristics of a family are that the member can/may share some similar DNA and leads to similar physical appearances, including similar facial features. This paper proposed a dual convolutional neural network (CNN) with a pyramid attention network for image-based kinship verification problems. The dual CNN classifier is formed by paralleling the FaceNet CNN architecture followed by family-aware features extraction network and three final fully-connected layers. A channel-wise pyramid attention network is added after the last convolutional layers of FaceNet CNN architecture. The family-aware features extraction network is used to learn family-aware features using the SphereFace loss function. The final features used to classify the kin/non-kin pair are joint aggregation features between the pyramid attention features and family-aware features. At the end of the fully connected layer, a softmax loss layer is attached to learn kinship verification via binary classification problems. To analyze the performance of our proposed classifier, we performed experiments heavily on the Family in The Wild (FIW) kinship verification dataset. The FIW kinship verification dataset is the largest dataset for kinship verification currently available. Experiments of the FIW dataset show that our proposed classifier can achieve the highest average accuracy of 68.05% on a single classifier scenario and 68.73% on an ensemble classifier scenario which is comparable with other state-of-the-art methods.

Analisis Sistem Pengelolaan Dana Desa Berdasarkan Peraturan Pengelolaan Keuangan Desa

Abstract. 
 The village is the smallest entity in the Indonesian government that is recognized and respected under the constitution. Villages have gone through a long history of regulation until finally regulations regarding Villages are specifically regulated in Law Number 6 of 2014 concerning Villages. This arrangement brings the Village to a new chapter and brings hope to the life of the community and village government which has a close impact on Village Finance, especially related to the Village Fund management system. Using a normative juridical approach, this study concludes that Indonesia has significant regulations regarding the management of Village Funds, starting from the Village Fund management stage to the Village Fund management supervision system. The stages of managing and supervising the management of the Village Fund as stated in the Legislation will have positive potential in the implementation of organizational accountability or public accountability of the Village government.

Don't Get Hung Up in the Middle

Grounding chains are usually taken to be top-ist, grounded in the largest entity (the cosmos), or bottom-ist, grounded in the smallest entity(ies) (mereological atoms). Between these two, middle-ism, the view that grounding chains terminate in middle-sized entities (like iPhones, toasters, amoebae), is almost never considered. Sarah Bernstein in her paper Could a middle level be the most fundamental? argues for the plausibility for middle-ism. In this paper I argue against Bernstein in that middle-ism is a view much more problematic than top-ism or bottom-ism. This is shown in three ways. The paper first shows how the middle level itself is problematic. The second problem is that middle-ism leads to a contradiction with respect to the notion of relative fundamentality, and third, middle-ism creates fatal problems for the parthood relation. Through these three issues, the paper shows how middle-ism is problematic in lieu of having fatal problems which refrain it from serving as the theory to explain fundamentalia and subsequently grounding structures.

The Impact of Fluid Dynamic Stress in Stirred Bioreactors – The Scale of the Biological Entity: A Personal View

AbstractFrom the start of industrial biotechnology, there has been a perception that biological entities are damaged by stirring, so‐called ‘shear damage'. Often, it was the soft option to explain a loss of performance when it was due to other factors, such as bubble ingestion with proteins or on scale‐up, where tip speed increased when it was due to decreased homogeneity, especially in pH. For many years, poor control and the range of analytical tools available made a more in‐depth explanation difficult; and the concepts of ‘high' and ‘low shear' impellers, now largely disproven, increased it. Here, the size of the biological entity is compared to the Kolmogorov microscale of turbulence leading to a reasonably clear picture emerging. The article starts with the author's introduction to the issue approximately 42 year ago with enzymes, conveniently also the smallest entity; and finishes with the largest, filamentous fungi.

Reserves and Resources Application in Welcoming Industry 4.0 Challenge

In the era of industry 4.0, digitalization is a very significant step to adopt in a company. Every worldly renowned industry, oil and gas included, needs to assimilate this term into its business process. Reserves and resources report depicts an oil and gas company future cash flow, wealth, performance, as well as growth. Therefore, creating and managing this report need meticulous attention. In order to comply with demand in industry 4.0 and simplify reserves and resources reporting process, reserves and resources database and web-based application need to be developed. First task to carry in establishing database is to create and input master data. Companies’ asset is classified into four common entities: asset, area, structure, and layer – as the smallest entity. Layer contains fluid type and oil and gas specific attributes. After master data is established, a web-based application to handle data transaction and reporting is developed. In order to maintain data security, access to this application is restricted into four roles: data entry user, data approval user, administrator, and management. Every role has its own privilege, for example data entry user can create, edit, and view data, while management can only view it. Other employees that need to access this application are based on management approval and restricted into view privilege under their asset location. This application has already been tested in two reserves and resources reporting window, and underwent bug-fixing and improvement process. Implementing this application in oil and gas company’s business process gives several benefits: minimizing human error, establishing a single data source, and cutting time consumption in creating reserves and resources report. This application is the solution in creating and managing the report, as well as displaying data in graphical view to help management makes corporate decision.

Late Antique Philosophical Terminology in Early Kalām

Abstract The Arabic term “a part which is not divided” (juzʾ lā yatajazzaʾ) is standard in later kalām to express the atom, i.e., the smallest entity out of which the bodies of this world are constituted. However, when early kalām doctrines are read with only this atomist meaning of the term in mind, strange claims result, namely that either an individual like ʿAlī or man is an atom. Reading these doctrines in the context of Late Antique philosophy in which the Greek term “undivided” (atomon) is considered as polysemous provides an interpretative tool to make better sense of the early mutakallimūn’s claims. Discussions of the various meanings of atomon first occur in Greek commentaries to Porphyry’s Isagoge from where they are then excerpted and introduced into compilations of definitions and divisions (diareses) of philosophical terms. A detailed survey of the steady development of these discussions in the Greek tradition sheds light on the condensed form in which they appear in philosophical compilations in Greek, Syriac and Arabic. Surviving Arabic compilations not only contain passages on the various meanings of atomon, but also present information on Democritus’s and Epicurus’s doctrines and are thus suggested as a very plausible, hitherto neglected channel of transmission of Greek atomist theories to early kalām.

Dual Textuality of Law

This paper treats legal informatics as a scientific bridge between law and legal documentation. Ten layers are distinguished in the realm of law, e.g., phrase, sentence, sentence formation, and legal act. Four kinds of representation are distinguished in legal documentation (a document representation, a syntactic one, a semantic one, and a pragmatic one). A granularity question is discussed: what is the smallest entity – a document, a sentence or a word? Different software systems are built within each layer. Such applications link different layers of law with different representations.

Capital -The Highest Stage of Methodological Revolution

Capital Vol. I is the terminal point of the life-long evolution of Marx’s methodology. For this respect, besides the factual and theoretical material provided, the methodology of Capital is also important. This method is not systemic dialectical method and hence concepts in Capital does not follow a pre-determined logical path. On the contrary, the analysis in Capital starts with the analysis of the most observable and the smallest entity; commodity. In this analytical flow, through traversing the peculiarities of generalised exchange, the specificity of money is defined. Thenceforth, the transformation of money into capital is elaborated. At this juncture, capital in the form of money has to meet with another special commodity, the labour power and capital passes into the hidden abode of production. The main objective of money capital in initiating the turnover of industrial capital is self-valorisation. In this process, the exceptional quality of the use value of the labor power steps in. Among all the commodities entering into production process as inputs, only labor power has the capacity to transfer more value than it has into the value of commodity. Detecting this exceptionality, Mars surpasses the boundaries of bourgeois political economy. Thus, the true origins of both surplus value and its alienated form, profit, are unfolded at the same instant. From this point on, Marx analysed the imperatives of extended capital accumulation. This analytical flow and the methodology which is embedded in this flow no doubt directs us to consent to the argument that Capital itself marks a methodological revolution. Some characteristics of the methodology in Capital no doubt reinforces this conclusion. First, Marx accomplished a simultaneous critique of both bourgeois political economy and capitalism without drawing a demarcation line between two. Second, the concepts used by Marx are not abstract which imitates the objective dynamics, rather they are “concrete” concepts. Third, instead of deriving the concepts logically, Marx imposes each concept when the need occurs and he substantiates these concepts from the actual capitalism.

MODEL KEBIJAKAN PEMERINTAH DESA DALAM PENGELOLAAN PASAR DESA DI KECAMATAN SUNGAI GELAM KABUPATEN MUARO JAMBI

The village as the smallest entity of a regional government has an important role to succeed in national development. Therefore the existence of the village remains inseparable from the central government regulation and accommodated its existence through the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 6 of 2014 concerning Villages. This study aims to find out and analyze the village government policy model in the implementation of the role of the Village Chief in managing the village market Sungai Gelam Subdistrict, Muaro Jambi Regency and to identify and analyze the constraints faced by the Village Head in managing the village market. and input for competent parties, especially in carrying out the duties of the village head in the management of the village market, especially in the Sungai Gelam District, Muaro Jambi Regency. The research method used is a type of empirical juridical research with a legislative approach and a conceptual approach. The procedure for sampling is done by purposive sampling. Legal materials in this study were collected through document studies (library research and field research) and literature studies. With primary and secondary data sources. Data analysis in this study was conducted qualitatively and then described descriptively. The results showed that the role of the Village Chief in managing the village market in Sungai Gelam Subdistrict, Muaro Jambi Regency had not been done properly and correctly because the village government had not been able to formally issue a policy so that it did not provide benefits to the village treasury and was considered unproductive due management that is regulated directly by the district government. On the contrary according to the fact that the village market can be managed by third parties or individuals, the obstacles faced by the Village Head in managing the village market in Sungai Gelam District are that the village government has not been given full authority in managing the village market by the Muaro Jambi district government and besides do not understand the provisions of the Minister of Home Affairs Regulation Nomor 1 of 2016 concerning Village Asset Management. In addition, the Village Requirement Agency as a village legislative body does not carry out its oversight function. While the expected results in this study are the creation of a model that is in accordance with the system and mechanism of the implementation of authority and legislation that applies in the country of Indonesia.

Semi-Automatic Indonesian WordNet Establishment: From Synset Extraction to Visual Editor

In this study, we have developed an Indonesian WordNet through four main phases: synonym set extraction (synset) as the smallest entity of lexical database from a natural language, semantic relation establishment between synsets (hypernym-hyponym and holonym-meronym), gloss extraction for synset collection, and the visual editor creation. The Semi-automatic term refers to the three initial phases which are automatically done using a number of machine learning approaches, while using visual editor to collaboratively complement the results collected from the previous phases. A number of raw data used on synset acquisition, semantic relations and glosses come from Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language, abbreviated as KBBI) and Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language Thesaurus), large collection of web pages from search engines, Wikipedia, and even Princeton WordNet for mapping purpose. This study shows that the proposed system successfully achieve 37,485 synsets, 24,256 hypernym-hyponym relations, 11,044 holonym-meronym relations and 6,520 gloss synsets. Similar approach is believed to accelerate lexical database development like WordNet for other languages.

Memory-Effect in Li-Ion Battery Electrodes Unraveled

The memory effect in Li-ion batteries first observed by Sasaki and co-workers1 in a LiFePO4electrode is defined as an abnormal potential overshoot in the charge–discharge cycle immediately following a partial charge–discharge cycle. This phenomenon is observed when the electrode undergoes 3 sequential cycles: i) memory-writing cycle where the electrode is first charged to a certain state-of-charge (SOC), then allowed to rest before being discharged to a given SOC, ii) memory-release cycle consisting of a full charge–discharge cycle which follows a rest step after memory writing and iii) a regular cycle which is simply a repetition of the memory-release cycle as a control test. A potential bump appears during the memory-release cycle which coincides with and tracks the depth of the memory-writing cycle (Fig. 1). A mathematical model has been developed2 to describe the dynamics of a phase-separating electrode (e.g., LiFePO4) and relies on two main features: i) non-equilibrium single-phase lithiation/delithiation of elementary units making up the active material and ii) non-uniformity of at least one physical property among the elementary units or across the electrode. An elementary unit may be interpreted as a single Li channel lying along the b-axis, a crystallite within a polycrystalline particle or even a nanoparticle in a nanoparticulate porous electrode. This mesoscopic unit is the smallest entity that can exchange species with its counterparts across the electrode. Model simulations reveal that the necessary condition for the memory effect to occur is the existence of a non-zero residual capacity at the onset of the memory-release charge which may originate either from a non-zero initial SOC or from an imbalanced writing cycle (unequal initial and final SOC). More importantly, it is shown that the collective electrochemical lithiation/delithiation of units in an electrode leaves it in a condition which is at the heart of the memory effect and other unusual observations in phase-separating electrodes (e.g., LiFePO4). Such unusual behavior is of critical importance in designing battery management algorithms which inevitably rely on cell voltage in addition to coulomb counting for SOC estimation. In this presentation, we shed light on the lithiation/delithation dynamics of LiFePO4 electrodes through a simple mathematical mesoscopic model. This model can simultaneously explain several other unique observed features associated with LiFePO4electrochemical performance: - quasi-static potential hysteresis - high rate-capability - cycle-path dependence - polarization overshoot in GITT compared with continuous cycling at the same current - bell-shaped current response in PITT and - existence of several apparent equilibria - memory effect To the best of our knowledge, this is the first successful description of the electrode response to multiple operating modes including continuous/intermittent partial/full galvanostatic and potentiostatic cycles that predicts the above features (Fig. 1). Figure 1: (a) Memory effect simulated for a 30% deep memory-writing cycle followed by a 10 min rest and memory-release cycles carried out at a rate of C/2. (b) Simulated open-circuit potential of the electrode undergoing different charge-discharge paths.

Pick-off annihilation of positronium in matter using full correlation single particle potentials: solid He.

We investigate the modeling of positronium (Ps) states and their pick-off annihilation trapped at open volumes pockets in condensed molecular matter. Our starting point is the interacting many-body system of Ps and a He atom because it is the smallest entity that can mimic the energy gap between the highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals of molecules, and yet the many-body structure of the HePs system can be calculated accurately enough. The exact-diagonalization solution of the HePs system enables us to construct a pairwise full-correlation single-particle potential for the Ps-He interaction, and the total potential in solids is obtained as a superposition of the pairwise potentials. We study in detail Ps states and their pick-off annihilation rates in voids inside solid He and analyze experimental results for Ps-induced voids in liquid He obtaining the radii of the voids. More importantly, we generalize our conclusions by testing the validity of the Tao-Eldrup model, widely used to analyze ortho-Ps annihilation measurements for voids in molecular matter, against our theoretical results for the solid He. Moreover, we discuss the influence of the partial charges of polar molecules and the strength of the van der Waals interaction on the pick-off annihilation rate.

Expanding on the mental number line: Zero is perceived as the “smallest”.

The representation of 0 in healthy adults was studied with the physical comparison task. Automatic processing of numbers, as indicated by the size congruity effect, was used for detecting the basic numerical representations stored in long-term memory. The size congruity effect usually increases with numerical distance between the physically compared numbers. This increase was attenuated for comparisons to 0 or 1 (but not to 2) when they were perceived as the smallest number in the set. Furthermore, the size congruity effect was enlarged in these cases. These results indicate an end effect in automatic processing of numbers and suggest that 0, or 1 in the absence of 0, is perceived as the smallest entity on the mental number line. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to models of number representation.

Topology optimization using the finite cell method

Huge effort has been spent over the past decades to develop efficient numerical methods for topology optimization of mechanical structures. Most recent investigations have focused on increasing the efficiency and robustness, improving the optimization schemes and extending them to multidisciplinary objective functions. The vast majority of available methods is based on low order finite elements, assuming one element as the smallest entity which can be assigned material in the optimization process. Whereas the present paper uses only a very simple, heuristic optimization procedure, it investigates in detail the feasibility of high order elements for topology optimization. The Finite Cell Method, an extension of the p-version of FEM is used, which completely separates between the description of the geometry of a structure and cells, where the high order shape functions are defined. Whereas geometry is defined on a (very) fine mesh, the material grid, shape functions live on a much coarser grid of elements, the finite cells. The method takes advantage of the ability of high order elements to accurately approximate even strongly inhomogeneous material distribution within one element and thus boundaries between material and void which pass through the interior of the coarse cells. Very attractive properties of the proposed method can be observed: Due to the high order approach the stress field in the optimized structure is approximated very accurately, no checkerboarding is observed, the iteratively found boundary of the structure is very smooth and the observed number of iterations is in general very small.

CONTROL OF SYNCHRONIZATION IN COUPLED NEURAL SYSTEMS BY TIME-DELAYED FEEDBACK

We discuss the synchronization of coupled neurons which are modeled as FitzHugh–Nagumo systems. As smallest entity in a larger network, we focus on two diffusively coupled subsystems, which can be interpreted as two mutually interacting neural populations. Each system is prepared in the excitable regime and subject to independent random fluctuations. In order to modify their cooperative dynamics, we apply a local external stimulus in the form of an extended time-delayed feedback loop that involves multiple delays weighted by a memory parameter and investigate if the local control applied to a subsystem can allow one to steer the global cooperative dynamics. Depending on the choice of this new control parameter, we investigate different measures to quantify the influence on synchronization: ratio of interspike intervals, power spectrum, interspike interval distribution and phase synchronization intervals. We show that the control method is more robust for increasing memory parameter.

Virology as biosystematics: towards understanding the viral infection biology

Large numbers of virus species exist in the realm of nature, and are now classified into distinct sub-groups based on their biochemical and biological characteristics (Knipe et al., 2007). Viruses are unique in their genomic composition, nucleocapsid/virion morphology, replication strategy, and/or target host. Even though viruses represent the smallest entity encoding a genetic program and are strictly dependent on hosts for their replication, they adapt themselves in a species-specific and dexterous manner to infect or persist in a wide variety of living things. In the course of interaction with hosts, viruses somehow find ecological niches to prosper their progenies. By studying how viruses interact with their respective hosts, we have learned much about life itself in the past hundred years. On the other hand, viral infections in host individuals may sometimes result in the diseases with visible symptoms. Although viruses are often coexistent with hosts, they can cause fatal infectious diseases in extraordinary cases. We also have taken many important lessons from the virally caused illness. The mission of research in virology today is to understand completely and systemically the biology and molecular biology of virus/host interaction. We virologists thus can contribute to the progress of life science and to the development of medical science. To achieve this aim, it is essentially necessary to integrate the concepts and methodologies of various scientific fields such as molecular/population genetics, biochemistry, genomics, epi-genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, bioinformatics, and computational science into the biosystematics. Virology in nature is a multi-disciplinary affair. A typical and good example of this research flow is the history of studies on recently emerged human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) (Ho and Bieniasz, 2008). Highly specialized scientists of various fields have worked together and extensively to obtain fundamental knowledge on the HIV-1 virus and its interaction with humans, the only host with symptoms of disease, which led to the discovery of HIV-1 as the initial pathogen of human acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) (Barre-Sinoussi et al., 1983). As a result of this multi-disciplinary approach to research, much is currently known about both basic as well as clinical aspects of HIV-1 and AIDS. The molecular basis for virus replication in target cells has been largely clarified, and drugs effective against the virus have been generated (Ho and Bieniasz, 2008). However, due to lack of appropriate animal model systems, studies aimed at elucidating viral events in vivo and, consequently, the discovery of more effective anti-viral strategies have been greatly hampered (Nomaguchi et al., 2008). Noteworthy, trials to develop anti-viral vaccines have been unsuccessful thereby underscoring the need for more suitable primate model research to answer basic questions about HIV-1 in vivo (Hayden, 2008; Watkins et al., 2008). In our laboratory, for instance, efforts have been made to generate a new class of HIV-1s that are tropic and pathogenic for macaque monkeys (Kamada et al., 2006; Igarashi et al., 2007; Nomaguchi et al., 2008). When successful, these viruses will provide the opportunity, not possible with currently available simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and SIV/HIV-1 chimeric viruses, to analyze the function of multiple HIV-1 genes in non-human primate species frequently used for experimental viral infections. In conclusion, virologists today must study viruses multilaterally. With the help of various specialists if necessary, they are required to analyze viruses and their interactions with hosts comprehensively and systemically. Only with such a multi-disciplinary experimental approach, will we be able to better understand how viruses work and in the position to educate and inform the lay public about the importance of our science to the well-being of mankind.

Indications for a dimeric organization of the antenna-depleted reaction center core of Photosystem II in thylakoids of intermittent light grown pea plants

Presently there is a debate and contradictory results on the supramolecular structure of Photosystem II (PS II) in the thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria, green algae and higher plants that is related to the question whether PS II exists as dimer or monomer in the different membranes. PS II is composed of several subunits. The core complex, the smallest entity that is able to split water, consists of the subunits D1-D2, cyt b 559, CP43, CP47, and the 33 kDa protein. In vivo, this core complex is connected to peripheral light harvesting complexes: in cyanobacteria to the phycobilisomes and in green algae and higher plants to the Chl a/ b binding protein, the LHC II. In in vitro experiments the supramolecular structure of the core complexes has been found to be dimeric or monomeric depending on a variety of experimental factors.