Small Urban Centers Research Articles

The Impact of Administrative Division and Reorganization on the Urban Network in Hodna Region (M'sila, Algeria), Spatial-Temporal Approach

Objectives: This study aims to achieve two main objectives. The first one is determining the characteristics of the municipal network in the Hodna region and describing the most prominent spatial imbalances. The second is the impact of administrative divisions and regional reorganization processes on the spatial distribution and evolution of the population. Methods: The approach adopted in determining the characteristics of the municipal network and evaluating the degree of spatial efficiency is the descriptive, analytical and measurement approach through the application of the shape index and the polygons of Thiessen. The analysis of variation in the spatial distribution of population and spatio-temporal dynamics according to administrative divisions was through the spatio-temporal approach. Results: The results show that the municipalities shapes do not correspond to any spatial logic, as their forms are old and depend on the terrain or social factors. The reorganization of 1974 and 1984 contributed to the reinforcement of the capacities of province and the municipalities by equipping them with new urban functions and many agglomerations have been promoted to extended functions, where the capitals of districts and municipalities were turned from small urban centers to real cities. Conclusions: The administrative division and reorganization of the territory has a significant impact on the urban network and the stability of the population.Therefore, the reorganization has given more finesse and flexibility to the management of the territories by providing them with various public services and administrations inherent to their respective ranks.

Developing community-based physical activity interventions and recreational programming for children in rural and smaller urban centres: a qualitative exploration of service provider and parent experiences

BackgroundChildren’s physical inactivity is a persisting international public health concern. While there is a large body of literature examining physical activity interventions for children, the unique physical activity context of low-density communities in rural areas and smaller urban centres remains largely underexplored. With an influx of families migrating to rural communities and small towns, evaluations of health promotion efforts that support physical activity are needed to ensure they are meeting the needs of the growing populations in these settings. The aim of this community-based research was to explore service providers’ and parents’ perspectives on physical activity opportunities available in their community and recommendations toward the development and implementation of efficacious physical activity programming for children in rural communities and smaller urban centres.MethodsThree in-person community forums with recreation service providers (n = 37 participants) and 1 online community forum with the parents of school-aged children (n = 9 participants) were hosted. An online survey and Mentimeter activity were conducted prior to the community forums to gather participants’ views on the barriers and facilitators to physical activities and suggestions for activity-promoting programs. The service provider and parent discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed following a deductive approach guided by Hseih and Shannon’s (2005) procedure for direct content analysis. A code list developed from the responses to the pre-forum survey and Mentimeter activity was used to guide the analysis and category development.ResultsSeven distinct categories related to the existing physical activity opportunities and recommendations for programs in rural communities and smaller urban centres were identified during the analysis: (1) Recovery from Pandemic-Related Measures, (2) Knowledge and Access to Programs, (3) Availability, (4) Personnel Support, (5) Quality of Programs and Facilities, (6) Expenses and Subsidies, and (7) Inclusivity and Preferences.ConclusionTo improve the health and well-being of children who reside in low-density areas, the results of this study highlight service provider and parent recommendations when developing and implementing community-based physical activity programs and interventions in rural and smaller urban settings, including skill development programs, non-competitive activity options, maximizing existing spaces for activities, and financial support.

“Arctic-tecture”: Teaching Sustainable Urban Planning and Architecture for Ordinary Arctic Cities

Arctic cities are often perceived as exceptional and uniquely challenged by extreme conditions, leading to their treatment as special cases in urban planning and development. However, this perception overlooks the reality that Arctic cities share similar issues common to many small and medium-sized urban centers globally, such as mobility, climate adaptation, and aging populations. By recognizing Arctic cities as ordinary cities, we can better address their needs and foster effective solutions. This article reflects on the results of a fourth-year Master-level course in Sustainable Urban Development, where students researched urban sustainability aspects (e.g., mobility, green infrastructure, energy, public spaces) in northern regions of Finland, Sweden, and Norway. It analyzes pedagogical approaches, highlighting challenges in integrating sustainability perspectives into architecture and planning curricula. Findings hold relevance for educators seeking to address similar challenges in the Arctic or other ordinary cities worldwide, contributing to more resilient and sustainable urban development across diverse environments.

The Spatial Structure of the Moscow Metropolis

Due to the scale of population and economic concentration, Moscow is a mega-polis forming a vast zone of influence around itself. The accumulated economic and financial potential of the capital, as well as its huge consumer demand, consistently act as the most important factors in the development of the surrounding regions of the Non-Chernozem region. These regions can be considered as the periphery of the Moscow Metropolis, a supra-agglomeration spatial structure developing around Moscow. During the post-Soviet period, there has been a steady trend towards the centralization of demographic, economic and investment resources in Moscow and the Moscow region. Active population growth, investment penetration and active suburbanization in the 50-60-kilometer zone closest to Moscow are taking place against the background of socio-economic depression in rural areas, small and medium-sized urban centers in areas more remote from the capital. Today, Moscow and the 60-kilometer zone around it concentrate 65% of the metropolitan population, as well as over 80% of its gross product and investments in fixed assets. This is also the zone of active daily pendulum labor migrations to Moscow (up to 1.5 million people daily), which are carried out by 15 to 60% of the total able-bodied population living here. Along with this, there are prerequisites for promising development as part of the metropolis and more remote territories. In particular, there is an integration of regional labor markets with Moscow, through alternative work formats – over a million residents of the periphery are othodniki (shift workers), remote and hybrid employment is widespread. An important factor in the socio-economic development of the “bloodless” rural area of the peripheral metropolis is the filling of its 4 million summer residents in the summer season. Thus, joining the Moscow Metropolis of the regions surrounding the capital, along with risks, creates unique integration opportunities for them and sets a strategic vector for their spatial development.

Analysis of arsenic in rice and domestic water supply in Baguio City, Philippines

Numerous studies have found that rice and water, as components of the human diet, are potential pathways of arsenic exposure in humans. Due to the negative health effects linked with arsenic exposure, the quality of drinking water and rice samples must be continually monitored. This research was carried out in Baguio City, a small urban center in the Philippines. Following microwave digestion, arsenic in rice and water samples were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. The results showed that the National Food Authority (NFA) rice samples had arsenic content below the detection limit, indicating that this commercially available rice does not pose any health risk to Filipino consumers in terms of arsenic exposure. The arsenic value in other rice samples ranged from 8 μg/L to 27 μg/L, with the lowest and highest values found in organic brown rice and white rice varieties, respectively. Despite detectable arsenic in all 20 rice samples, all values were less than the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 150 μg/L. Despite higher arsenic content in mixed rice than in white and organic colored rice, the mean differences are not significant, as proven by the Kruskal Wallis Test. All drinking water samples bought from water refilling stations had no detectable arsenic, while eight of the 18 (44%) of the spring water samples showed detectable amounts but are far below MCL of arsenic in drinking water. The findings suggest that the amount of arsenic in rice and spring water samples are too low to pose health risks over a short period of time.

Families with Refugee Backgrounds Rebuilding New Lives: A Saskatchewan Study

This qualitative study explores factors contributing to refugees’ resilience in Regina, Saskatchewan. It aims to add to the emerging body of Canadian literature on refugees’ strengths and experiences as they navigate resettlement in smaller urban centres. Data were collected from three focus groups that explored the experiences of 15 people from seven countries who had settled in Saskatchewan. Findings show common patterns that contributed to resilience for refugees, including pursuits of Canadian education, employment, social networks, and personal qualities. Conclusions indicate that protective factors (i.e., personal characteristics, social supports and networks, starting over in education and employment) that facilitated resilience for participants interacted and worked together to help them overcome adversity during settlement.

Walkability index for world heritage cities in developing countries

Walkability principles are an important part in the planning process of cities that face urban problems such as gentrification, pollution, and decay of their built heritage. The proposed factors – connectivity, proximity, land use mix, and retail density – form a comprehensive framework for evaluating walkability that transcends the boundaries of historical cities. These factors, while initially identified within historical contexts, possess inherent qualities that render them universally adaptable to various urban landscapes. By leveraging these factors, urban planners gain insights into the intricate fabric of pedestrian experiences in cities. They serve as universal evaluative tools, applicable not only to historical cities but also to burgeoning metropolises and smaller urban centres. This work introduces a novel approach to assessing the Walkability Index for World Heritage Cities, utilizing a Multiple Criteria Spatial Decision Support System (GIS-MCDA) structured in four stages. The approached methodology is particularly valuable for governments and decision-makers in developing countries of the Global South, where limitations in data and available tools are common challenges. The insights gained from this study can guide the improvement of policies, enable more precise implementation of sustainable mobility infrastructure, and motivate the pursuit or maintenance of UNESCO World Heritage nominations. The case study focused on the Historical Centre of Arequipa, Peru, a city designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The results of this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach in such contexts, owing to its specificity and the integration of both objective and subjective elements.

Beyond the metropolis: street tree communities and resident perceptions on ecosystem services in small urban centers in India

Abstract Although 41% of the global urban population lives in smaller cities, the nature and trajectories of urban nature, ecosystem services and human-nature connections in smaller centers is relatively unknown. While megacities in developed countries move towards biophilic urban planning and participatory decision making, basic information on tree communities and their perceived services is a bottleneck in achieving these goals in such small urban centers. Through a combination of field measurements (258 transects, 931 trees) and semi-structured interviews (497 individuals), we assessed the street tree community and resident perceptions of ecosystem service values in two coastal cities on the west coast of India that are under rapid change. We found that mean street tree density is low in both cities, and corresponds to perceptions of recent change in tree cover (−28% in Kochi, −11% in Panjim). The street tree community in both cities were dominated by ornamental avenue trees such as Albizia saman and Peltophorum pterocarpum, but native coastal species like Cocos nucifera, Terminalia catappa and Thespesia populnea were also common. Despite recent urban growth, residents in both cities reported low value of trees for food, fodder and medicine, but high value for regulating services like shade and water. Moreover, we found strong evidence for aesthetic and cultural values of trees in both cities. Our study establishes critical baselines for biophilic planning in these small urban centers towards urban sustainability in India.

Depreciation of urban properties and demolition threshold

The Italian territory is characterized by the presence of numerous degraded buildings, which consequently undergo significant depreciation due to their age and obsolescence, resulting in a reduction of their attributed value. This phenomenon is observed in various areas of the country, both in large cities and small urban centers. Degraded properties pose an aesthetic problem as they contribute to a negative visual impact on the surrounding environment and may affect the quality of life of local communities. They also present socio-economic challenges considering the costs required to restore degraded buildings to normal conditions of use. This study analyzes the dynamics of the market value of a property by separating the contributions provided by the built structure and the land. The depreciation of the built structure is generated by a plurality of factors, all linked to the inevitable passage of time, which can influence or determine the end of the service life of the building, or its economic useful life. The phenomenon of urban rent (positive or negative) also acts on the latter, determined by external factors independent of the technological and physical characteristics of the building. Based on the logical interaction between the two phenomena - the depreciation of the built structure and the urban rent - this study attempts to define a relationship capable of suggesting the potential threshold for demolition.

Community disaster resilience in Brazilian small urban centers

Brazilian small urban centers are facing several disasters impacts due to their singular environmental, economic, and social characteristics. A comprehensive approach encompassing multiple dimensions of resilience and adaptation is essential to minimize material and human losses. This article analyzes the community disaster resilience of 213 small urban centers in the Brazilian Southeast region, affected by recurrent events, such as floods, flash floods, and landslides. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach. First, a quantitative analysis was conducted at the municipal level using statistical techniques to develop a community disaster resilience index, incorporating social, economic, infrastructure, institutional, and community dimensions. Simultaneously, a qualitative assessment evaluated the levels of social capital at the intra-municipal scale among populations affected by disasters through an online questionnaire. The results demonstrated a direct correlation between community disaster resilience levels and the economic and urban development of the assessed municipalities. Lower levels of community disaster resilience were associated with higher vulnerability of the population, characterized by limited socioeconomic development, inadequate housing conditions, insufficient urban infrastructure for transportation, healthcare, leisure, and social support services, and ineffective implementation of public development policies. Moreover, the absence and limited diversity of leisure spaces that foster social connections contributed to reduced community engagement and participation, resulting in lower levels of social capital. This study underscores the need for comprehensive strategies to enhance community resilience in small urban centers facing recurrent disasters. The findings provide insights for policymakers and practitioners to prioritize interventions and investments in economic development, infrastructure improvement, and social capital enhancement as crucial elements of disaster risk reduction and resilience-building efforts.

The relationship between dynamic monitoring network plans and eco-efficiency – New evidence from atmospheric quality monitoring policy in China

China’s rapid economic development in recent decades has come at a considerable environmental cost. This paper explores whether atmospheric quality monitoring policy (AQMP) improves eco-efficiency by using AQMP as a natural experimental group. We assessed the eco-efficiency of 285 cities in China from 2009 to 2019 using the super-efficient SBM model and estimated the impact of AQMP using the propensity score method Difference-in-Difference (PSM-DID) model. The key findings of this paper are as follows: First, AQMP can enhance eco-efficiency, promoting sustainable urban development. Second, governmental and non-governmental organizations play contrasting roles in either fostering or reversing the positive effects of AQMP. Factors like innovation, clean energy adoption, and industrial structure have a positive mediating influence. Finally, the impact of AQMP on eco-efficiency varies across cities, displaying heterogeneity. Specifically, AQMP has a positive effect on eco-efficiency in resource-rich cities, small and medium-sized urban centers, smart cities, and coastal areas. These findings carry significant implications for the establishment of dynamic monitoring networks and the advancement of eco-efficiency in emerging countries, including China.

Public education and professionalisation of Italian Agriculture (1861–1914)

Abstract This paper analyses the formation in Italy of a school system focused on the training of technical and managerial personnel in the agricultural sector. Drawing on a rich literature on the relationship between school training, social change, and economic modernisation, this study details an under-researched aspect of the formation of the national state. Italy constitutes an exemplary case study as for the reforming action of public institutions in the field of education as well as the modernising policies that concerned the rural sector of the country before the First World War. Schools of agriculture in Italy became a means of social advancement not only for a wide sector of rural society but also for the children of the artisan and commercial bourgeoisie of small urban centres. This study thereby makes a novel contribution to the ongoing debate on the development of agriculture-related professions in Italy between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Emission of volatile organic compounds from residential biomass burning and their rapid chemical transformations

Biomass combustion releases a complex array of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) that pose significant challenges to air quality and human health. Although biomass burning has been extensively studied at ecosystem levels, understanding the atmospheric transformation and impact on air quality of emissions in urban environments remains challenging due to complex sources and burning materials. In this study, we investigate the VOC emission rates and atmospheric chemical processing of predominantly wood burning emissions in a small urban centre in Greece. Ioannina is situated in a valley within the Dinaric Alps and experiences intense atmospheric pollution accumulation during winter due to its topography and high wood burning activity. During pollution event days, the ambient mixing ratios of key VOC species were found to be similar to those reported for major urban centres worldwide. Positive matrix factorisation (PMF) analysis revealed that biomass burning was the dominant emission source (>50 %), representing two thirds of OH reactivity, which indicates a highly reactive atmospheric mixture. Calculated OH reactivity ranges from 5 s−1 to an unprecedented 278 s−1, and averages at 93 ± 66 s−1 at 9 PM, indicating the presence of exceptionally reactive VOCs. The highly pronounced photochemical formation of organic acids coincided with the formation of ozone, highlighting the significance of secondary formation of pollutants in poorly ventilated urban areas. Our findings underscore the pressing need to transition from wood burning to environmentally friendly sources of energy in poorly ventilated urban areas, in order to improve air quality and safeguard public health.

Formative evaluation of Peace Spaces in a middle school: Teacher perceptions and student usage

AbstractTeaching youth how to self‐regulate is a focus of a trauma‐informed school approach. Peace Spaces, including Peace Corners and Peace Rooms, are a trauma‐informed intervention used to teach self‐regulation skills to students. The current study used a Consensual Qualitative Research design to identify and describe the thoughts, concerns, and experiences of teachers who implemented Peace Spaces within a middle school in a small urban center of Pennsylvania. Results of qualitative data analyses provided insight into teachers' perceptions of strengths and challenges to the implementation of Peace Rooms. Additionally, using the school's archival data, the study examined how students were using the Peace Room. Domains from interviews with teachers included: (1) How Peace Spaces are Used; (2) Reasons for Using Peace Spaces; (3) Benefits of Peace Spaces; (4) Peace Space Strategies; (5) Challenges of Peace Spaces; (6) Attitudes about Peace Spaces; and (7) Future Directions. Themes from analysis of archival data indicated that students used the Peace Room for one or a combination of five stressors, with Peer‐Related Stressors and Mental Health as the top reasons. Collectively, these results suggested Peace Rooms were useful to students who needed a space to self‐regulate and/or talk through their problems with a trusted adult. Finally, the school's data indicated a downward trend in the number of referrals for discipline.

Multi-disciplinary community-based group intervention for fibromyalgia: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

Fibromyalgia is characterized by widespread pain, fatigue, sleep disturbances, mood disturbances, and cognitive impairment. Most individuals with fibromyalgia experience poorly managed symptoms and increased healthcare service use. Multicomponent therapies, with a focus on nonpharmacological modalities, are increasingly supported in the literature. However, given the limited resources available, implementation in smaller communities remains a challenge. This research tested a community-based multidisciplinary group intervention for individuals diagnosed with FM living in a small urban centre. The primary outcome was perceptions of quality of care and secondary outcomes included disease-related functioning, anxious and depressive symptoms, pain beliefs, and health service utilization. A pilot randomized control trial was conducted in which 60 patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia were randomized into a 10-week community-based multidisciplinary group intervention program or usual care. Treatment components included twice-weekly exercise sessions and weekly education sessions (e.g., pain education, cognitive behavioral strategies for stress, nutrition, peer support). The trial (NCT03270449) was registered September 1 2017. Statistically significant post-intervention improvements were found in the primary outcome, perceived quality of care (Cohen's d = 0.61, 0.66 for follow up care and goal setting, respectively). Secondary outcomes showing statistically significant improvements were disease-related daily functioning (Cohen's d = 0.70), depressive symptoms (Cohen's d = 0.87), and pain beliefs (Cohen's d = 0.61, 0.67, 0.82 for harm, disability and control, respectively). No adverse events were reported. Community-based multidisciplinary group interventions for fibromyalgia show promise for improving satisfaction with quality of care, disease-related functioning, and depression, and fostering more adaptive pain beliefs.

The financial burden of accessing care for people with scleroderma in Canada: a patient-oriented, cross-sectional survey.

Patients with scleroderma require a lifetime of treatment and frequent contacts with rheumatologists and other health care professionals. Although publicly funded health care systems in Canada cover many costs, patients may still face a substantial financial burden in accessing care. The purpose of this study was to quantify out-of-pocket costs borne by people with scleroderma in Canada and compare this burden for those living in large communities and smaller communities. We analyzed responses to a Web-based survey of people living in Canada with scleroderma. Respondents reported annual out-of-pocket medical, travel and accommodation and other nonmedical costs (2019 Canadian dollars). We used descriptive statistics to describe travel distance and out-of-pocket costs. We used a 2-part model to estimate the impact on out-of-pocket costs of living in a large urban centre (≥ 100 000 population), compared with smaller urban centres or rural areas (< 100 000 population). We generated combined mean estimates from the 2-part models using predictive margins. The survey included 120 people in Canada with scleroderma. The mean, annual, total out-of-pocket costs were $3357 (standard deviation $5580). Respondents living in smaller urban centres and rural areas reported higher mean total costs ($4148, 95% confidence interval [CI] $3618-$4680) and travel or accommodation costs ($1084, 95% CI $804-$1364) than those in larger urban centres (total costs $2678, 95% CI $2252-$3104; travel or accommodation costs $332, 95% CI $207-$458). Many patients with scleroderma incur considerable out-of-pocket costs, and this burden is exacerbated for those living in smaller urban centres and rural areas. Health care systems and providers should consider ways to alleviate this burden and support equitable access to care.

Processes of spatial concentration and specialisation of industry by the intensity of R&amp;D work in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (Poland)

The aim of this article is to assess the spatial diversity and to identify the spatial distribution of industry, as well as the directions and scales of its transformations based on the processes of spatial concentration and specialisation of the industrial activity from the perspective of the intensity of research and development (R&amp;D) work in the areas of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The analysis of the location of industrial activity was conducted based on the entities registered in section C (manufacturing) of the Polish Classification of Activity (PKD). Spatial structures of the industry innovation are presented by applying the classification of manufacturing concerning the intensity of R&amp;D for high-technology, medium high-technology, medium low-technology and low-technology industries. The research was conducted for municipalities divided into cities and rural areas. The results indicate significant changes that took place in the years 2009–2020 in the spatial structure of the whole region, as well as in the urban spatial distribution due to the occurring processes of concentration and specialisation of industrial activity. These changes were simultaneously accompanied by the decreasing level of the concentration of industrial production. Additionally, the Lower Silesian Voivodeship is also characterised by significant spatial diversity of the concentration and specialisation processes of industrial activity. The identified regularities demonstrate the growing role of the suburban zones of large cities, which is particularly visible in the example of Wrocław, an area of intensive diffusion of industrial activity from the central hub. These processes also diffuse into smaller urban centres in the voivodeship.

Keeping Order - Theft, Sex, and Vagrancy

In recent decades, historians working on crime and gender have been focusing on the interplay between female crime and the urban setting. Subsequently, migration has become increasingly important within the research field. While this has led to new findings regarding women’s participation in crime in early modern metropolises, in contrast, little is known about prosecuting patterns in smaller urban centres in predominantly rural regions. This is particularly true for less urbanized territories, such as the geographical area of the Swiss Confederation. It is often assumed that women in big cities led more mobile and independent lives than their counterparts in smaller towns. This socio-economic difference in female profiles is used as the main explanation for the disparities in gendered patterns in the registration of criminality. By analysing the records of the criminal court of seventeenth-century Protestant Bern, this article aims to contribute to the understanding of women’s crime in early modern urban territories. The findings demonstrate that smaller towns could also show high levels of female defendants. However, the city of Bern was not a place of relative freedom for women. Rather, the opposite is true: the authorities’ control, focusing on an ordered society and household, led to strong formal control of mobility and (im)morality, which had a lasting impact on the prosecution of women. This policy, the article argues, is the main explanation for the high percentage of recorded female delinquency.

Redevelopment Initiatives on Brownfield Sites: An Evaluation Model for the Definition of Sustainable Investments

With reference to brownfield sites redevelopment interventions, an innovative model for the definition of effective and financially sustainable initiatives is proposed and tested. The model borrows the operative logic of the break-even analysis (BEA). It neglects the basic assumption of BEA related to revenue linearity, by considering the real trend of the revenues. In fact, in specific contexts characterized by a real estate over supply—e.g., in small urban centers, or where a new plan includes a relevant increase in new buildings and/or the functional reconversion of existing disused complexes—the BEA hypothesis on revenue linearity could be inconsistent, as prices will tend to become depressed. In the mentioned situations, discount mechanisms on the unit prices could occur. These phenomena determine a reduction in the unit selling price in correspondence of the amount of gross floor area (GFA) increase. Taking into account the current and cogent needs of effective strategies for brownfields renovation, the innovative evaluation model is developed for supporting public and private investors’ decision processes. It could represent a valid reference in the preliminary phases of decision-making processes for public and private subjects, able to ensure the break-even point of the initiative balance sheet is reached.

‘A foreigner is not a person in this country’: xenophobia and the informal sector in South Africa’s secondary cities

South Africa’s major cities are periodically wracked by large-scale xenophobic violence directed at migrants and refugees from other countries. Informal sector businesses and their migrant owners and employees are particularly vulnerable targets during these attacks. Migrant-owned businesses are also targeted on a regular basis in smaller-scale looting and destruction of property. There is now a large literature on the characteristics and causes of xenophobic violence and attitudes in South Africa, most of it based on quantitative and qualitative research in the country’s major metropolitan areas. One of the consequences of big-city xenophobia has been a search for alternative markets and safer spaces by migrants, including relocating to the country’s many smaller urban centres. The question addressed in this paper is whether they are welcomed in these cities and towns or subject to the same kinds of victimization as in large cities. This paper is the first to systematically examine this question by focusing on a group of towns in Limpopo Province and the experiences of migrants in the informal sector there. Through survey evidence and in-depth interviews and focus groups with migrant and South African vendors, the paper demonstrates that xenophobia is also pervasive in these smaller centres, in ways that both echo and differ from that in the large cities. The findings in this paper have broader significance for other countries attempting to deal with the rise of xenophobia.