Small Tractor Research Articles

Improving the air environment of vehicle cabins

BACKGROUND: The use of an innovative irrigated nozzle for air purification in the cabins of small class tractors is justified. The use of it makes it possible to comprehensively solve the problem of the state of air environment in the case of tractors operation in conditions of limited air exchange. AIM: Reduction of the content of harmful substances in the air of small tractors’ cabins. METHODS: Physical and chemical processes -chemical processes, during which the cabin air can be purified from harmful substances in the air cooler nozzle, are taken into account. RESULTS: The irrigated nozzle developed for the air coolers of the cabins of the mentioned tractors makes it possible to clean the exhaust gases from harmful impurities. CONCLUSION: Nozzles of a regular structure, irrigated with water with sodium bicarbonate and potassium permanganate dissolved in it, make it possible to comprehensively solve the problem of improving the state of air environment in the case of small class tractors operation in conditions of limited air exchange.

Energy and environmental evaluation and comparison of a diesel-electric hybrid tractor, a conventional tractor, and a hillside mini-tiller using the life cycle assessment method

Currently, electrification, especially hybrid solutions, still represents the most promising option to improve energy efficiency, emissions, and productivity for agricultural machinery. Agricultural machinery in China's mountainous areas is represented by quantities of small conventional tractors and hillside mini-tillers (HMTs), which are highly fuel-intensive and polluting. Effective measures need to be taken to reduce their environmental impacts. Thus, a diesel-electric hybrid tractor (DHT) was designed and developed. The life cycle assessment (LCA) method was used to assess and compare the energy consumption and environmental impacts of the DHT, an internal combustion engine tractor (ICET), and an HMT in this study. Comparative results present that the ICET had the most contribution to acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), and respiratory inorganics (RI), while the HMT created the most to primary energy demand (PED), global warming potential (GWP), and photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP). The DHT had the lowest contribution to six environmental impact indicators, 5.1%–68.9% lower than those of ICET and HMT. Among the six phases in the life cycle, the Pump-to-Wheel (PTW) phase consumed the most energy (65.9%–78.5%) and brought about the largest environmental impacts (54.2%–94.7%), followed by the Well-to-Pump (WTP) phase (4.0%–37.3%). Increasing the proportion of electricity generation from non-fossil fuels in 2030 showed positive effects on saving energy and reducing environmental impacts for the ICET, DHT, and HMT, with the DHT benefiting the most. Discoveries in this study can contribute to the research and development of the DHT and the electrification of small agricultural machinery.

Numerical analysis on tractor axle suspension for steering instability induced by bump disturbances

In Japan, small agricultural tractors without axle suspensions used on bumpy farm roads experience severe vibrations. Excessive vibrations often cause tyres to lose contact with the supporting ground or decrease the vertical tyre force such that the cornering force exceeds the static friction limit. The resulting bouncing and sliding motions induce steering instability, resulting in overturning accidents. This study investigated the effectiveness of axle suspension in alleviating bump disturbance-induced steering instability in small tractors. A step lane change test involving bump disturbances was newly proposed for the steering stability testing of small tractors. The numerical experiments compared four axle suspension structures: no-, front-, rear-, and full-suspensions. The results showed that bump disturbances induce steering instability in the no- and rear-suspension tractors. In contrast, the front- and full-suspension structures significantly improved the steering stability of the tractor by keeping the steering wheel in contact with the ground. The proposed testing method helped evaluate improvements in the steering stability brought about by increasing the ground contact of the steering wheel. Our results can aid in designing and testing suspension systems for small tractors.

Analysis of 38 kW class agricultural tractor engine load rate according to agricultural operation

This study was conducted to analyze the engine load ratio of a 38 kW agricultural tractor to calculate national emissions. Engine output was calculated using engine CAN (Controller area network) data measured through a load measurement system. In this study, plow tillage (PT) and rotary tillage (RT), which are the main agricultural tasks of small and medium horsepower tractors, were selected and performed three times for each stage. The engine load ratio was calculated as the ratio of the engine power generated during work and the engine rated power, and weights (25% each for PT M1, PT M2, RT L3, and RT L4) according to the agricultural work ratio were applied. The engine load ratio was found to be an average of 0.68 and 0.75 for the M1 and M2 stages of plow tillage work, respectively, and an average of 0.57 and 0.65 for the L3 and L4 stages of rotary tillage work, respectively. The weighted load ratio was 0.17, 0.19, 0.14, and 0.16 for plow tillage operation M1, M2, and rotary tillage operation L3 and L4, respectively. The integrated load factor was found to be 0.66, which is approximately 1.38 higher than the current domestic load factor of 0.48.

Design of low-pressure transportable steel tanks for storing hydrogen for an electric tractor

The presented contribution offers a theoretical analysis of the possibilities of implementing hydrogen technologies in agricultural machines and tractors. It discusses in more detail the structural designs and strength calculations of low-pressure transportable steel tanks for hydrogen storage for the ET 3000 electric tractor, in which the accumulators will be replaced by designed metal hydride tanks. The structural design of low-pressure tanks meets the requirements of the STN EN 13322-2 standard, which deals with the technical and structural design of transportable pressure tanks. The design and construction of tanks are key from the point of view of the real implementation of hydrogen technology in a fully functional small tractor for the purpose of its long-term testing.

Design, development and evaluation of a tractor mounted air blast sprayer for coconut and arecanut.

A tractor mounted air blast sprayer was designed and developed to reduce the drudgery involved in the manual spraying of pesticide by climbing coconut tree. The sprayer mounted on a small tractor, prime mover, is operated by the power taken from its power take off (PTO). In this study, the influence of two important parameters viz., blower speed (2250 and 3000 rpm) and tractor speed (1.5 and 2.5 km h-1) at different heights on the spray characteristics such as volume mean diameter (VMD), droplet density, and spray deposition were collected and analysed. The tractor speed of 1.5 kmh-1 and blower speed of 3000 rpm was observed at recommended VMD between 100-200 µm at a height above 21 m. Hence, the tractor speed of 1.5 kmh-1 and blower speed of 3000 rpm was selected for field evaluation. The mean height of the coconut tree in the tested field was 24 m. The mean droplet size and deposition were observed at 124 µm and 7.2 µl cm-2, respectively at 24 m height. The effective field capacity, field efficiency, and fuel consumption were 0.524 ha.h-1, 73.72%, and 4.67 l h-1, respectively.

River sand mining as a livelihood activity: The case of Nepal

This paper investigates the livelihood dimension of small-scale river sand mining. To what extent is low intensity, so called artisanal, sand mining an important livelihood activity among poor people who live along small rivers where people shovel sand by hand onto small tractors during the dry season? Even at the foot of the Himalayas, river sand mining is not a wide-spread activity. A core contribution of the paper is to identify sand worker settlements along two smaller rivers in the eastern plains of Nepal. All household livelihood activities were registered and compared to a random sample of households from neighboring villages. Sand workers have less land than the population at large, although they can be landowners and combine sand mining with own farming and daily labor both in agriculture and elsewhere. Sand workers earn about the same as other low-skilled laborers; however, a major benefit is more regular income than other forms of low-skilled labor such as agriculture or construction work. The data further suggests that sand work is an alternative to labor migration, which normally gives higher income, but at the cost of being away from the family for months or even years.

A finite element modeling‐based approach to predict vibrations transmitted through different body segments of the operator within the workspace of a small tractor

AbstractAgricultural tractor drivers are subjected to high levels of whole‐body vibrations and hand arm vibrations during most part of the farm activities due to unevenness of field surface, uneasy posture, improper workplace design, moving parts of the tractor, and other unavoidable circumstances. The comfort level of the operator inside a dynamic tractor is dependent on the level of vibration generated inside the different human body segments. In the present study, a finite element modeling was proposed to predict vertical vibrations (Z‐axis) and frequencies at the different body segments of the seated small tractor operator. The forces required for different controls of the tractor were measured to be used as input parameters in the finite element modeling. The maximum mean forces of the brake (172.8 N) and clutch (153.2 N) were used as the input parameters for the simulation study. The simulated results were validated with the field measured values of vertical accelerations at selected body segments of the operator. The simulation could successfully predict vertical vibrations at selected points of interest (i.e., foot, leg, thigh, lower arm, upper arm, back, and head) except the chest of the body, as the buttock of the operator model was fixed (degree of freedom is equal to zero) in the simulation. The obtained results were compared with the international standards ISO 2631‐1 (1985/1997) and ISO 5349‐1 (2001) to assess the vibration characteristics at the different body segments of the operator. The foot, leg, lower arm, and upper arm of the operator were subjected to vertical vibration frequencies from 10 to 200 Hz. Most of the resonance of vertical accelerations occurred in one‐third octave bands of 20–80 Hz frequencies. The thigh, chest, back, and head of the operator were exposed to vibration frequencies below 40 Hz during field operation. At these parts of the body, the vertical acceleration resonated at lower frequencies, between 2 and 8 Hz.

Operator workplace design compatibility: A study on mini tractor

Small tractor for agriculture is India’s most trending tractor segment for farmers. Looking to the mini tractor industry in India, there is a need to study the ergonomic aspects of mini tractor for operator’s better safety, comfort and higher efficiency. Study was conducted in which the tractor workplace configurations of 8 different mini tractor models were measured using different measuring scales. The location of different mini tractor seat and control locations were calculated considering the biomechanical and anthropometric measurements. These values were given as design values for mini tractor operator’s workplace design. The ergonomic evaluation of workplaces of 8 different mini tractor models was carried out in laboratory as well as in the field. Studies on evaluation of the optimum location of controls resulted in steering column angle of 70º with horizontal, foot pedals (clutch and brake) distance of 70.5 cm from SRP and the draft control lever distance of 28.6 cm from seat reference point (SRP). Heart rate was significantly influenced by different mini tractor models. It was found that the value obtained from the different mini tractor workplace configurations should be near to design values so that the operator can operate it with efficiently and comfortably.

Design Development and Evaluation of Mini Tractor Operated Trencher

The mechanization of Indian farms is imperative to enhance input use efficiency, reduce human drudgery, cost of production and to address issues of labour scarcity and timeliness of farm operations. Digging of trenches for laying pvc pipes in sprinkler and drip irrigation system has become drudgery by human labour, more expensive and time consuming. Commercially available machines are high capacity, more cost of operation and not affordable to the small and marginal farmers. To overcome this problems, a small tractor operated trencher was designed and developed. The developed trencher was evaluated in the field at a 1.5,2,2.5 km/h forward speeds. During field trails it was observed increase in forward speed from 1.5 to 2.5 km/h resulted in decrease in depth of trench, fuel consumption and capacity of auger. Increased in forward speed resulted in increase in length of trench.

Fasting the stabilization response for prevention of tractor rollover using active steering: Controller parameter optimization and real-vehicle dynamic tests

The rollover problem is prominent for a small tractor under complicated road conditions. The application of active steering (AS) technology is an effective approach to solve this problem. A lateral stability index based on the critical position is proposed and improved. Sliding mode control (SMC) technology based on an exponential terminal sliding mode surface is studied by considering the parameter changes and external disturbances in the rollover process of the tractor, which further accelerates the system’s response speed. A real vehicle test platform was built taking into account the limitations of the few real vehicle dynamic tests in current studies. Real vehicle dynamic tests with varying speeds, slopes, and obstacles were conducted for various road pavements and typical off-road pavements. For road pavements, the results demonstrated that the maximum roll angle of the tractor was 15.94 % less than with that under uncontrolled. For typical off-road pavements, AS control effectively restrained rollover accidents under non-extreme conditions, and SMC reduced the time the tractor was in the critical rollover region by 35.98 % on average compared with PID control. The stability region boundary of a small tractor was defined, and the stable driving region of a tractor on various slopes is obtained. This study provides a specific theoretical basis and implementation plan for guiding the research of tractor active safety technology.

The Impact of Traffic-Induced Compaction on Soil Bulk Density, Soil Stress Distribution and Key Growth Indicators of Maize in North China Plain

The traffic-induced soil compaction in the field has gradually become an important constraint to sustainable agricultural development. A field experiment was conducted to acquire the stress transmitted caused by multiple passes with different types of tractors and to investigate the impact of these stresses on soil bulk density and crop growth. The experiment applied two tractors with different masses: LOVOL M904 (HC) and John Deer 280 (LC), and six different treatments of 0 (C0), 1 (C1), 3 (C3), 5 (C5), 7 (C7), and 9 (C9) tractor passes for each tractor. The results showed that at each number of passes, tractors with small axle-loads at 0–20 cm depth generated higher soil additional stress, while tractors with large axle-loads at 20–80 cm depth generated higher soil additional stress. In the 0–20 cm soil layer, when the number of continuous passes is less than 7 times, the passes of a small axle-load tractor lead to larger soil bulk density, and when the number of continuous passes is more than 7, the compaction of large axle-load tractor leads to larger soil bulk density. At depths of 20–80 cm, compaction by large axle-load tractors results in larger soil bulk density. In this study, different levels of tractor compaction inhibited key growth indicators of maize, resulting in yield reductions. The effect of different tractor load compaction on maize yield increased significantly with the number of compaction passes, with 1–5 tractor passes having no significant effect on yield and 7–9 passes producing greater yield reductions for HC. This study will provide a theoretical basis and technical support for the selection of agricultural machinery and reasonable tillage technology.

Suitability of Using Mechanization Means for the Maintenance of Grass Stands by the Method of Mulching

This study aims to provide comprehensive and practical information on particular mechanization means used in the maintenance of permanent grass stands, namely grass cutting technologies without the collection of cut grass biomass - mulching. A sample consisting of six machines classified into three categories (uniaxial tool carriers, single-axle small tractors, cutting machines with a zero turning radius) was tested in practice and functional and operational aspects of the machines were studied on different localities of permanent grass stands. Data measured in the individual machines were used to calculate consumption [l/ha], consumption [l/mth], consumption [l/l of cut biomass] or performance [ha/hour]. The measurements took place on two sites: a site with the permanent grass stand unkempt for a long time and a site regularly maintained by mulching. The study was conducted in the cadastral area of Ostrava City situated in the NE part of the Czech Republic. Results of the study show that the total fuel consumption [l/ha] in the individual mowing machines always at all times higher on plots that were unkempt for a long time. The overall comparison of fuel consumption [l/mth] of the individual types of cutting machines between the localities showed that nearly all tested cutting machines had a higher consumption on sites with permanent grass stands unkempt for a long time. The performance [ha/h] of all cutting machines was higher on the sites that were regularly maintained by mulching in the past.

Actuating force for transmission controls in small farm tractor considering driver’s comfort

Tractor drivers are exposed to a lot of physical and mental stress during field operations. In small tractor, lessspace is available in workspace for tractor driver. Therefore, proper design of controls in workspace of small tractoris imperative. A study was carried out at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute during 2021 to compare theworkspace configuration of small tractor with Indian Standard IS 12343:1998 and measure force requirements ofselected transmission controls. Most of the frequently used controls in the workspace of the selected tractor arelocated at a range less than recommendations of the Indian Standard IS 12343:1998. Force measurements of selected transmission controls were performed in a field of size 30 × 15 m2. Tractor was attached with three implements (i.e. rotary tiller, cultivator and planter) and operated by three different operators. It was observed that mean force requirement of brake and clutch pedals were high for small tractors due to difficulty in operator’s sitting. However, the force requirements of accelerator, driving shift and range shift gear lever were close to the recommended values. The frequency of use of controls was also estimated to determine number of times tractor driver applied certain control in a defined area. The driving shift gear lever and range shift gear lever were observed as the most and least frequently used controls respectively in the tractor workspace during field operations. The measured forces will be used to design the automatic system for selected controls in small tractor.

The use of small-sized tractors in agriculture

The most complex and expensive machines on the agricultural machinery market are tractors and combines. The number of agricultural tractors produced in Russia in 2019 amounted to 3,798 units, but only 38.7 of them are domestic, and 61.3% are foreign cars assembled in Russia. All tractors are classified according to purpose, type of propulsion unit and type of frame. By the type of mover, wheeled and tracked tractors are the most common. Wheeled tractors are easy to manufacture, operate, maintain, have a lower cost, and are more versatile. Caterpillar tractors, in turn, are more effective on waterlogged and loose soils, since, due to the larger support area, they have less impact on the ground. The share of small-scale enterprises in gross agricultural production in 2020 increased to 14.3% due to the implementation of state programs for the development of small agribusiness. This category of farms produces about a third of the total volume of grain - 39.4 million tons. Despite the significant role of small-scale enterprises in the agricultural economy of Russia, this category of farms is not sufficiently provided with the necessary agricultural machinery, such as small tractors with the necessary attachments. Moreover, the demand for domestically produced mini tractors is growing every year due to their versatility, operational reliability and ease of maintenance. The lack of mini-tractors in the consumer market forces farmers to use tractors of traction class 1.4 and 2 in the production of products, which leads to excessive pressure on the ground, its overcompaction and destruction of the structure. In addition, on small-area fields with difficult terrain for the operation of equipment, it is impossible to fully implement the efficiency of tractors of this traction class. These factors substantiate the need for further development and manufacture of mini-tractors, taking into account existing global trends, such as the use of artificial intelligence, which includes decision support systems, expert systems, autonomous robots and robotic systems, as well as unmanned units.

Techno-Economic Feasibility of Small Tractor Operated Broad Bed Furrow Maker

Techno-Economic Feasibility of Small Tractor Operated Broad Bed Furrow Maker

Optimizing the PM2.5 Tradeoffs: The Case of Taiwan

The causes of PM2.5 is dynamic and systematic. However, many studies approach the PM2.5 problem by focusing only on either socioeconomic factors or geo-meteorological factors in isolation such data insufficiency might undermine the effort to control PM2.5. We propose a LSTM-XGBoost model composing both socioeconomic and geo-meteorological factors together to improve the PM2.5 monitoring system. We forecast the weekly PM2.5 concentrations in five regions in Taiwan based on machine learning training data. The results indicate that overall small trucks usage should be reduced by 80% while maintaining semi-trucks and passenger cars at current level. In addition, coal and IPP Gas power have no impact on PM2.5 concentrations in central Taiwan while usage in passenger cars, small tracks and tractor trailers should be reduced by 80% in central Taiwan. Overall, central Taiwan and Chiayi regions have the highest PM2.5 projections at XGBoost output of 68.5 and 59.1 level. Finally, our model indicates that the use of fossil fuel based small tracks and tractor trailers should be reduced by 80% to maintain a reasonable level of PM2.5.

Дослідження елементів технічного регулювання щодо введення в обіг та в експлуатацію сільськогосподарських і лісогосподарських тракторів

The purpose of the study is to analyse the quantitative and qualitative composition of registered and registered in Ukraine in 2020 agricultural and forestry tractors (hereinafter - tractors) and to identify areas for improvement of technical regulatory elements for their commissioning and operation. Research methods. The methodological basis of the work is the analysis and generalization of data on registered and registered tractors, as well as certain elements of technical regulation (technical regulations, standards, procedures for assessment and confirmation of conformity). Results. To summarize the structure of data on tractors, an analysis of their quantitative and qualitative composition, namely new (2018-2020 years of production) and first commissioned in 2020 in Ukraine wheeled and tracked tractors, based on the report of the State Food and Consumer Service of Ukraine for 2020 [Register ( open data), 2020]. The results of the analysis showed that for the first time in Ukraine mostly new tractors are registered (96 %) and only about 4 % - imported, used tractors. Analysis of the distribution of registered new tractors by origin showed that about 60 % of new tractors are Chinese tractors, the vast majority of which are small tractors, about 22 % ― Belarusian production, domestic serial tractors are a small percentage ― within 6 %. Some elements of technical regulation used for putting into operation and operation of tractors in terms of their efficiency (technical regulations, procedures for confirmation of conformity and registration) are analysed. The results of the research are generalized and the directions of improvement of the elements of technical regulation on the commissioning and operation of tractors in Ukraine are determined. Conclusions. Taking into account the results of research on the structure and origin of tractors placed on the market and put into operation in Ukraine, analysis of the provisions of current regulations, it is determined that the issue of putting into operation and operation of single models of tractors, agricultural and forestry trailers remains unresolved. , trailer vehicles (hereinafter - vehicles), in particular the type of which is not approved in Ukraine, as well as used, converted, etc. Therefore, the current technical legislation governing the introduction of mass-produced vehicles covered by the Technical Regulation approving the type of agricultural and forestry tractors, their trailers and replaceable trailers, systems, components and individual technical units [CMU Resolution № 1367 of 28.12.2011] (hereinafter ― the Technical Regulation of type approval 1367/2011) must be supplemented by regulations, which establish the requirements and procedures for confirming the conformity of individual models of vehicles. This will allow for a more complete settlement of the issue of admission to traffic of safe vehicles.

IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF DELIVERY OF PERISHABLE AGRICULTURAL CARGO IN INTERCITY TRANSPORTATION

The article analyzes the current state of the theory and practice of solving the issues related to the delivery of perishable goods by road. The author has determined that in order to improve the efficiency of cargo delivery, one of the promising directions is the development and application of transport delivery schemes, which take into account the change in consumer characteristics of perishable goods during transportation. Product losses during transportation must be taken into account when solving such problems as justifying the expediency of specialized rolling stock, choosing the method of transportation without transshipment, as well as when choosing the most rational delivery schemes. Losses of cargo are usually accounted for by the value of the actual losses and the value of the cargo. The article proposes the use of three schemes for the delivery of perishable cargo. The schemes differ in the way cargo is collected and the way goods are loaded into trucks. Also different are the types of vehicles that can be used in the delivery of goods under different schemes. The first scheme consists of the harvesting of peaches between the rows of the orchard by small tractors. The advantage of this scheme is the possibility of using heavy-duty vehicles with the achievement of maximum use of the capacity factor. Flatbed trucks are used for transportation. As a result of the accumulation of cargo at the point of loading, downtime is reduced by reducing the waiting time of cargo delivery. The second scheme is the need for in-line loading of vehicles in the fields of enterprises. Prefabricated routes for trucks and direct loading in the field are used. Application of the second scheme excludes the possibility of using heavy transport, because the movement will be made on unpaved roads. The need for in-line loading also eliminates the use of loading and unloading mechanisms. The third delivery scheme is similar to the first, but it is proposed to use specialized vehicles with a refrigerated chamber for transportation. As criterion of assessment of expediency of use of the offered schemes total expenses for cargo delivery are accepted taking into account possible losses from cargo damage, on the offered criterion it is expedient to estimate influence of such parameters, as volume of the cargo presented for transportation and length of the route.

Modelling of An Electric Tractor Powertrain using MATLAB/Simulink

Lithium-ion battery pack technology is the current trend in the automotive industry. For this study, the authors have selected NMC 18650 lithium-ion cells to design a battery pack for electric tractors and simulating the electric tractor powertrain model to gauge and size the battery pack configuration parameters. The tractor parameters have been selected by comparing with some Indian and Japanese electric tractors. The simulation has been carried out using MATLAB/Simulink under a custom made drive cycle. The Simulink model has been divided into five parts i.e. Wheel, Transmission, Motor, Motor Controller and Battery pack. The principle commitment of this work lies in the similar investigation of these frameworks, to choose a particular setup for the utilization of small commercial electric tractors. This study shall help anyone interested in designing and simulating Lithium-ion battery pack for their projects and wants to understand various factors which affect the selection procedure depending upon the application of the user.