Small-scale Convection Cells Research Articles

Incorporating rapidly developing thunderstorm data into a deep convection scheme for improving short-term prediction of heavy rainfall over South Korea

In this study, we examined the potential of the Korea Rapid-Development Thunderstorm (K-RDT) product obtained from a geostationary meteorological satellite to improve the short-term prediction of heavy rainfall caused by a mesoscale convective system over South Korea. Specifically, we utilized a simple nudging technique to integrate K-RDT data into the Simplified Arakawa Schubert (SAS) deep convection scheme of the Global/Regional Integrated Model System (GRIMs) Regional Model program (RMP). Our analysis focuses on selected cases of heavy rainfall. The nudging experiments outperformed the control experiments in terms of precipitation forecasts. Notably, the experiment that used longer nudging times produced the best results. Our results also demonstrate that the K-RDT, with its resolution of 1 km, can detect small-scale convective cells that have clear impacts on large-scale atmospheric fields. This suggests that incorporating such small-scale information into numerical weather prediction (NWP) models can significantly improve forecasting skill, especially when the model cannot represent subgrid-scale convection.

A random 2D walk of a submerged free-floating disc in a convective layer

Free motions of a thermally insulating disc submerged in a liquid layer heated from below are studied experimentally. The disc is fixed at a certain height from the bottom of the convective cell, but can move freely in horizontal directions. Blocking of vertical motion and heat flux leads to the appearance of large-scale vortices, which in turn, drags the disc. The interplay of the large-scale circulation and the disc produces complex two-dimensional disc motions. The disc dynamics is mainly determined by large-scale modes: toroidal vortex with descending fluid in the centre and large-scale vortices along each coordinate, existing on the background of intense, but relatively short-lived small-scale convective cells. The wandering disc forms a cold spot above itself, which affects large-scale circulation but has little effect on cell convection at scales on the order of the layer thickness, which provide the main heat transport and dominate the upper part of the layer. Despite the essentially three-dimensional flow structure, which is fundamentally different from that of the convective flow in an elongated tank with one-dimensional disc motions, the travels along each coordinate look similar to one-dimensional motions.

Evaluation of convective cloud microphysics in numerical weather prediction models with dual-wavelength polarimetric radar observations: methods and examples

Abstract. The representation of cloud microphysical processes contributes substantially to the uncertainty of numerical weather simulations. In part, this is owed to some fundamental knowledge gaps in the underlying processes due to the difficulty of observing them directly. On the path to closing these gaps, we present a setup for the systematic characterization of differences between numerical weather model and radar observations for convective weather situations. Radar observations are introduced which provide targeted dual-wavelength and polarimetric measurements of convective clouds with the potential to provide more detailed information about hydrometeor shapes and sizes. A convection-permitting regional weather model setup is established using five different microphysics schemes (double-moment, spectral bin (“Fast Spectral Bin Microphysics”, FSBM), and particle property prediction (P3)). Observations are compared to hindcasts which are created with a polarimetric radar forward simulator for all measurement days. A cell-tracking algorithm applied to radar and model data facilitates comparison on a cell object basis. Statistical comparisons of radar observations and numerical weather model runs are presented on a data set of 30 convection days. In general, simulations show too few weak and small-scale convective cells. Contoured frequency by altitude diagrams of radar signatures reveal deviations between the schemes and observations in ice and liquid phase. Apart from the P3 scheme, high reflectivities in the ice phase are simulated too frequently. Dual-wavelength signatures demonstrate issues of most schemes to correctly represent ice particle size distributions, producing too large or too dense graupel particles. Comparison of polarimetric radar signatures reveals issues of all schemes except the FSBM to correctly represent rain particle size distributions.

The effects of small-scale convection in the shallow lithosphere of the North Atlantic

SUMMARY Curie point depth can be used as a proxy for plate temperatures. Data from the North Atlantic (10°–50°N) are used here to determine if the observed oscillations and patterns in Curie depths could be a subproduct of small-scale thermal instabilities arising at the bottom of the lithospheric plates. Our numerical models suggest that small-scale convection (SSC) cells could produce thermal perturbations at isotherms as low as the Curie point. These results are compatible with North Atlantic observations in terms of wavelengths (150–300 km), amplitudes (∼4 km) and orientations of the instabilities. Observed Curie-point depth oscillations before the onset (70 to 90 Myr) of SSC could also be linked to other different processes. We suggest that, in the case of the North Atlantic lithosphere, the spreading rate variation and the melt and upwelling could be intricately linked and cause a different pattern of SSC.

Lithospheric Structure of the Central Andes Forearc from Gravity Data Modeling: Implication for Plate Coupling

Abstract Geodetic and seismological data indicates that the Central Andes subduction zone is highly coupled. To understand the plate locking mechanism within the Central Andes, we developed 2.5-D gravity models of the lithosphere and assessed the region’s isostatic state. The densities within the gravity models are based on satellite and surface gravity data and constrained by previous tomographic studies. The gravity models indicate a high-density (~2940 kg m-3) forearc structure in the overriding South American continental lithosphere, which is higher than the average density of the continental crust. This structure produces an anomalous pressure (20-40 MPa) on the subducting Nazca plate, contributing to intraplate coupling within the Central Andes. The anomalous lithostatic pressure and buoyancy force may be controlling plate coupling and asperity generation in the Central Andes. The high-density forearc structure could be a batholith or ophiolite emplaced onto the continental crust. The isostatic state of the Central Andes and Nazca plate is assessed based on residual topography (difference between observed and isostatic topography). The West-Central Andes and Nazca ridge have ~0.78 km of residual topography, indicating undercompensation. The crustal thickness beneath the West-Central Andes may not be sufficient to isostatically support the observed topography. This residual topography may be partially supported by small-scale convective cells in the mantle wedge. The residual topography in the Nazca ridge may be attributed to density differences between the subducting Nazca slab and the Nazca ridge. The high density of the subducted Nazca slab has a downward buoyancy force, while the less dense Nazca ridge provides an upward buoyancy force. These two forces may effectively raise the Nazca ridge to its current-day elevation.

Seismic recognition of igneous rocks of the Deepwater Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, and their distribution

ABSTRACTNumerous igneous bodies within the Deepwater Taranaki Basin are recognised mainly from seismic data and range from Early Cretaceous to Pliocene in age. They were all emplaced within an intra-plate setting but are scattered apparently at random in time and space. This paper describes the occurrences of igneous rocks within the basin as interpreted from seismic data, and discusses their possible origin. There are no indications of hotspot tracks within the Zealandia micro-continent so an alternative origin is sought. Previous authors see the main cause of volcanism as decompression melting due to localised lithospheric detachment and the movement of the Zealandia plate across the mantle as incidental. It is suggested that the movement of the Zealandia lithosphere, in the order of 4000 km to the north-northwest since the Cretaceous, may have caused drag across the asthenosphere, which in turn created transient small-scale convection cells that assisted the process of decompression melting as a modification to the accepted theory.

Probability distribution of surface wind speed induced by convective adjustment on Venus

The influence of convective adjustment on the spatial structure of Venusian surface wind and probability distribution of its wind speed is investigated using an idealized weather research and forecasting model. When the initially uniform wind is much weaker than the convective wind, patches of both prograde and retrograde winds with scales of a few kilometers are formed during active convective adjustment. After the active convective adjustment, because the small-scale convective cells and their related vertical momentum fluxes dissipate quickly, the large-scale (>4km) prograde and retrograde wind patches remain on the surface and in the longitude–height cross-section. This suggests the coexistence of local prograde and retrograde flows, which may correspond to those observed by Pioneer Venus below 10km altitude. The probability distributions of surface wind speed V during the convective adjustment have a similar form in different simulations, with a sharp peak around ∼0.1ms–1 and a bulge developing on the flank of the probability distribution. This flank bulge is associated with the most active convection, which has a probability distribution with a peak at the wind speed 1.5-times greater than the Weibull fitting parameter c during the convective adjustment. The Weibull distribution P(>V) (= exp[−(V/c)k]) with best-estimate coefficients of Lorenz (2016) is reproduced during convective adjustments induced by a potential energy of ∼7 ×107Jm−2, which is calculated from the difference in total potential energy between initially unstable and neutral states. The maximum vertical convective heat flux magnitude is proportional to the potential energy of the convective adjustment in the experiments with the initial unstable-layer thickness altered. The present work suggests that convective adjustment is a promising process for producing the wind structure with occasionally generating surface winds of ∼1ms–1 and retrograde wind patches.

Simulation of vegetation feedbacks on local and regional scale precipitation in West Africa

Abstract Planned changes to land use in West Africa have been proposed to both combat desertification and to preserve biodiversity in the region, however, there is an urgent need for tools to assess the effects of these proposed changes on local and regional scale precipitation. We use a high-resolution, convection-permitting numerical weather prediction (NWP) model to study how the initiation and propagation of mesoscale convective systems (MCS) depends on the surface vegetation cover. The simulations covered a 4-day period during the West African monsoon in August 2006. In many aspects of the simulations, there was evidence of vegetation type exerting a significant influence on the location of precipitation where the influence of orography and coastal water was minimal. In this study, vegetation was classified according to the fractional coverage of tree (>30%) and grass (>30%) plant functional types. Tree-grass boundary cover was defined where more than 3 grid cells of both tree and grass occurred in a moving 3 × 3 window, which was further enlarged using a 3 grid cell (∼12 km) buffer. We found that over the whole study region (5N to 17N and 11W to 9E) 33.8% of convective initiations occur over tree-grass boundaries that cover only 28.4% of the land surface. This is significantly more than would be expected by chance (p = 0.0483), providing support to the hypothesis that vegetation gradients provide heat and moisture gradients, of a similar magnitude to that of soil moisture. Additionally, we found that on average, more time under an MCS occurred over boundary cover and orography, followed by tree cover, during the afternoon and evening period, thus supporting the hypothesis that land cover type influences the location of larger propagating systems. Contrasting patterns were found in the quantity of precipitation between small-scale convective cells and larger scale MCS. More small-scale precipitation accumulated, on average, over grass cover during the afternoon period, indicating a tendency for small-scale convection, initiated over boundaries, to prefer the drier and warmer grass side of vegetation boundaries in the afternoon period. However, once these smaller scale convective cells merge together to form larger MCS, a tendency for the most intense precipitation to fall over tree cover was observed. When intense precipitation (>10 mm per hour) occurred simultaneously over tree, boundary and grass cover, we found the highest precipitation rate to be most frequently over tree cover (48.4%), and least frequently over boundary cover (19.9%), indicating a preference of MCS for cooler, more moist forest cover. These results show for the first time that convection-permitting NWP models do exhibit responses to vegetation similar to those observed in the real world, and therefore are useful tools to assess the impacts of proposed future land use changes.

Development and verification of a real-time stochastic precipitation nowcasting system for urban hydrology in Belgium

Abstract. The Short-Term Ensemble Prediction System (STEPS) is implemented in real-time at the Royal Meteorological Institute (RMI) of Belgium. The main idea behind STEPS is to quantify the forecast uncertainty by adding stochastic perturbations to the deterministic Lagrangian extrapolation of radar images. The stochastic perturbations are designed to account for the unpredictable precipitation growth and decay processes and to reproduce the dynamic scaling of precipitation fields, i.e., the observation that large-scale rainfall structures are more persistent and predictable than small-scale convective cells. This paper presents the development, adaptation and verification of the STEPS system for Belgium (STEPS-BE). STEPS-BE provides in real-time 20-member ensemble precipitation nowcasts at 1 km and 5 min resolutions up to 2 h lead time using a 4 C-band radar composite as input. In the context of the PLURISK project, STEPS forecasts were generated to be used as input in sewer system hydraulic models for nowcasting urban inundations in the cities of Ghent and Leuven. Comprehensive forecast verification was performed in order to detect systematic biases over the given urban areas and to analyze the reliability of probabilistic forecasts for a set of case studies in 2013 and 2014. The forecast biases over the cities of Leuven and Ghent were found to be small, which is encouraging for future integration of STEPS nowcasts into the hydraulic models. Probabilistic forecasts of exceeding 0.5 mm h−1 are reliable up to 60–90 min lead time, while the ones of exceeding 5.0 mm h−1 are only reliable up to 30 min. The STEPS ensembles are slightly under-dispersive and represent only 75–90 % of the forecast errors.

Sensitivity of tropical cyclone intensification to inner-core structure

In this study, the dependence of tropical cyclone (TC) development on the inner-core structure of the parent vortex is examined using a pair of idealized numerical simulations. It is found that the radial profile of inner-core relative vorticity may have a great impact on its subsequent development. For a system with a larger inner-core relative vorticity/inertial stability, the conversion ratio of the diabatic heating to kinetic energy is greater. Furthermore, the behavior of the convective vorticity eddies is likely modulated by the system-scale circulation. For a parent vortex with a relatively higher inner-core vorticity and larger negative radial vorticity gradient, convective eddy formation and radially inward propagation is promoted through vorticity segregation. This provides a greater potential for these small-scale convective cells to self-organize into a mesoscale inner-core structure in the TC. In turn, convectively induced diabatic heating that is close to the center, along with higher inertial stability, efficiently enhances system-scale secondary circulation. This study provides a solid basis for further research into how the initial structure of a TC influences storm dynamics and thermodynamics.

Stratification-induced scale splitting in convection

The coexistence of motions on various scales is a remarkable feature of solar convection, which should be taken into account in analyses of the dynamics of magnetic fields. Therefore, it is important to investigate the factors responsible for the observed multiscale structure of solar convection. In this study, an attempt is made to understand how the scales of convective motions are affected by the particularities of the static temperature stratification of a fluid layer. To this end, simple models are considered. The equations of two-dimensional thermal convection are solved numerically for a plane horizontal fluid layer heated from below, in an extended Boussinesq approximation that admits thermal-diffusivity variations. These variations specify the stratification of the layer. The static temperature gradient in a thin sublayer near the upper surface of the layer is assumed to be many times larger than in the remainder of the layer. In some cases, distributed heat sinks are assumed to produce a stably stratified region overlying the convective layer. Manifestations of the scale-splitting effect are noted, which depend on the boundary conditions and stratification; it becomes more pronounced with the increase of the Rayleigh number. Small-scale convection cells are advected by larger-scale flows. In particular, the phase trajectories of fluid particles indicate the presence of complex attractors, which reflect the multiscale structure of the flow. The effect of the stably stratified upper sublayer on the flow scales is also considered.

Role of random thermal perturbations in the magmatic segmentation of mid-oceanic ridges: Insights from numerical simulations

Using a random thermal perturbation (RTP) model this study investigates the process of magmatic segmentation along mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) axes as a function of the upwelling dynamics, controlled by coupled solidification–melting processes. The RTP model suggests that the variation in along-axis velocity (VL) fields constitutes the underlying mechanism of segmentation in natural MORs, showing temperature variations within a steady-state range, irrespective of large initial thermal perturbations imposed at the model base. The VL patterns are initially transient, characterized by multi-order segments, but attain a stable configuration with dominantly large segments (average size ~100km) within a time scale of 2.3Ma. Buoyant-melt driven thermal convection explains this transient segmentation. Small scale convection cells are found to be progressively consumed by larger cells, resulting in a stable convection structure over a similar time scale. Slow- and fast-spreading ridges (SSR and FSR) undergo upwelling with contrasting melt flow patterns. SSRs involve melt feeding into the ridge axis by horizontal flows from segment centers, trailing into large-scale conduits at an early stage. With time, vertical upwelling occurs throughout the segment. In the case of FSRs, both melt supply avenues prevail throughout their development. We also evaluate the variation of the across-axis flow velocity (VT) to investigate the mode of geometric evolution of MORs. Time series VT maps suggest that a ridge structure develops through localization of discrete axes (VT=0) with offsets varying up to 15km, which coalesce with one another to form a single axis. The matured ridge, however, retains higher-order offsets (up to 9km).

Temperature-dependent transient creep and dynamics of cratonic lithosphere

Large-scale mantle convection forms the upper boundary layer (lithosphere) where the vertical temperature drop is about 1300 K. Theoretical rheology and laboratory experiments with rock samples show that transient creep occurs while creep strains are sufficiently small. The transient creep is described by the temperature-dependent Andrade rheological model. Since plate tectonics allows only small deformations in lithospheric plates, creep of the lithosphere plates is transient whereas steady-state creep, described by non-Newtonian power-law rheological model, takes place in the underlying mantle. The solution of stability problem shows that the lithosphere is stable but small-scale convective oscillations are attenuated very weakly in regions of thickened lithosphere beneath continental cratons (subcratonic roots) where the thickness of the lithosphere is about 200 km. These oscillations create small-scale convective cells (the horizontal dimensions of the cells are of the order of the subcratonic lithosphere thickness). Direction of motion within the cells periodically changes (the period of convective oscillations is of the order of 3 × 108 yr). In this study, the oscillations of cratonic lithosphere caused by initial relief perturbation are considered. This relief perturbation is assumed to be created by overthrusting in orogenic belts surrounding cratons. The perturbation of the Earth's surface relief leads to a fast isothermal process of isostatic recovery. In the presence of vertical temperature gradient, vertical displacements, associated with the recovery process in the lithosphere interior, instantly produce the initial temperature perturbations exciting thermoconvective oscillations in the cratonic lithosphere. These small-amplitude convective oscillations cause oscillatory crustal movements which form sedimentary basins on cratons.

Transient creep and convective instability of the lithosphere

SUMMARY Laboratory experiments with rock samples show that transient creep, at which strain grows with time and strain rate decrease at constant stress, occurs while creep strains are sufficiently small. The transient creep at high temperatures is described by the Andrade rheological model. Since plate tectonics allows only small deformations in lithospheric plates, creep of the lithosphere plates is transient whereas steady-state creep, described by non-Newtonian power-law rheological model, takes place in the underlying mantle. At the transient creep, the effective viscosity, found in the study of postglacial flows, differs significantly from the effective viscosity, which characterizes convective flow, since timescales of these flows are very different. Besides, the transient creep changes the elastic crust thickness estimated within the power-law rheology of the lithosphere. Two problems of convective stability for the lithosphere with the Andrade rheology are solved. The solution of the first problem shows that the state, in which large-scale convective flow in the mantle occurs under lithospheric plates, is unstable and must bifurcate into another more stable state at which the lithospheric plates become mobile and plunge into the mantle at subduction zones. If the lithosphere had the power-law fluid rheology, the effective viscosity of the stagnant lithospheric plates would be extremely high and the state, in which large-scale convection occurs under the stagnant plates, would be stable that contradicts plate tectonics. The mantle convection forms mobile lithosphericplatesiftheeffectiveviscosityoftheplateisnottoomuchhigherthantheeffective viscosity of the underlying mantle. The Andrade rheology lowers the plate effective viscosity corresponding to the power-law fluid rheology and, thus, leads to instability of the state in which the plates are stagnant. The solution of the second stability problem shows that the state, in which the lithospheric plate moves as a whole with constant velocity, is stable but smallamplitude oscillations are imposed on this motion in regions of thickened lithosphere beneath continental cratons (subcratonic roots) where the thickness of the lithosphere is about 200 km. These oscillations create small-scale convective cells (the horizontal dimensions of the cells are of the order of the subcratonic lithosphere thickness). Direction of motion within the cells periodically changes (the period of oscillations is of the order of 10 8 yr). The small-amplitude convective oscillations cause small strains and do not destroy the thickening of the lithosphere beneath cratons. Thus, the transient creep of the lithosphere explains not only mobility of the lithospheric plates but longevity of subcratonic roots as well.

Numerical models of slab migration in continental collision zones

Abstract. Continental collision is an intrinsic feature of plate tectonics. The closure of an oceanic basin leads to the onset of subduction of buoyant continental material, which slows down and eventually stops the subduction process. In natural cases, evidence of advancing margins has been recognized in continental collision zones such as India-Eurasia and Arabia-Eurasia. We perform a parametric study of the geometrical and rheological influence on subduction dynamics during the subduction of continental lithosphere. In our 2-D numerical models of a free subduction system with temperature and stress-dependent rheology, the trench and the overriding plate move self-consistently as a function of the dynamics of the system (i.e. no external forces are imposed). This setup enables to study how continental subduction influences the trench migration. We found that in all models the slab starts to advance once the continent enters the subduction zone and continues to migrate until few million years after the ultimate slab detachment. Our results support the idea that the advancing mode is favoured and, in part, provided by the intrinsic force balance of continental collision. We suggest that the advance is first induced by the locking of the subduction zone and the subsequent steepening of the slab, and next by the sinking of the deepest oceanic part of the slab, during stretching and break-off of the slab. These processes are responsible for the migration of the subduction zone by triggering small-scale convection cells in the mantle that, in turn, drag the plates. The amount of advance ranges from 40 to 220 km and depends on the dip angle of the slab before the onset of collision.

Gravity lineaments of the Cocos Plate: Evidence for a thermal contraction crack origin

Lineaments in the gravity field with wavelengths of 100–200 km affect the south-central Pacific. Because they align with absolute plate motion, it has been proposed that they reflect small-scale convection cells beneath the lithosphere that become elongated by basal shear. Alternatively, it was suggested that they reflect channelized flow of low viscosity material following the base of the lithosphere toward the East Pacific Rise, or that they result from lithospheric-scale thermal contraction cracks. Here, we report about previously undetected gravity lineaments across the Cocos Plate. Similarly to the south-central Pacific lineaments, the Cocos lineaments affect a plate that is anomalously shallow, with seamounts aligning mostly within their troughs. However, the Cocos lineaments strike markedly oblique to absolute plate motion and follow instead trajectories that are perpendicular to seafloor isochrons, a characteristic best explained by the thermal contraction crack model. The presence of steep scarps at the base of seamounts and the seismic imaging of faults striking perpendicular to isochrons further support this interpretation. Assuming that the slow subsidence rates of the south-central Pacific and Cocos plates reflect a warmer upper mantle, we propose that the associated thinner elastic plates favor the formation of thermal contraction cracks. A thinner elastic plate may also explain the pattern of ridge propagation in both areas. At large ridge offsets with a history of steady migration, the propagating segments have been those cutting into the shallower flanks, consistent with the concept that a warmer, thinner plate is more easily cracked.

Pb–Zn mineralization in a Miocene regional extensional context: The case of the Sidi Driss and the Douahria ore deposits (Nefza mining district, northern Tunisia)

The Sidi Driss and Douahria sulfide ore deposits and showings are located in the Nefza mining district, northern Tunisia. The ores are hosted within Upper Miocene (Messinian) basins, within carbonate lenses composed of Fe–Mn-enriched dedolomite partially or totally replaced by early barite and celestite. The ore mainly consists of galena and spherulitic/colloform sphalerite (partially replaced by later Fe-sulfides). It is present as disseminated or banded ores and has been deposited within the host-rock through dissolution/replacement process or through void infilling. The remaining voids are filled by late calcite/barite locally associated with a late oxidation event. In situ ion microprobe sulfur isotope analyses show significant variability for sphalerite (from − 43.9 to 1.2‰), galena (from − 30.3 to − 2‰) and marcasite δ 34S (from − 35.9 to 25.8‰). These values are interpreted as the result of (i) the mixing of two sulfur end-members in the mineralizing fluids, corresponding to different reduction processes (bacterially-mediated sulfate reduction and thermochemical sulfate reduction, with early celestite and barite and/or contemporaneous Messinian seawater, together with Triassic sulfate, as sulfur sources, and (ii) Rayleigh fractionation process in a closed system. Several arguments (Fe–Mn enrichment in early diagenetic carbonates, involvement of Messinian seawater as a sulfur source, low temperature of deposition and soft-style sedimentary figures within sulfides) suggest that the Sidi Driss and Douahria Pb–Zn ore deposits are syn-diagenetic. Moreover, the properties of the ore deposits, with Fe–Mn carbonates having a wider distribution than that of the base metal sulfides, and the characteristics of the mineralization, in which diagenetic sulfates are a sulfur source and Cd enrichment in sphalerite, support the classification of the Sidi Driss and Douahria Pb–Zn deposits as SHMS-Sedex type. Late Miocene extension, comprising rifting dynamics and basalt emplacement, favored a thermally-driven fluid circulation origin for the Sidi Driss and Douahria deposits, enhancing inception of small-scale shallow convection cells. Such sulfide emplacement is significantly different from that of southernmost MVT ore deposits of Tunisia, which are associated with diapirs and are interpreted as the result of a Serravalian–Tortonian gravity-driven fluid circulation event related to late Alpine convergence.

Volcanic passive margins

Abstract Compared to non-volcanic ones, volcanic passive margins mark continental break-up over a hotter mantle, probably subject to small-scale convection. They present distinctive genetic and structural features. High-rate extension of the lithosphere is associated with catastrophic mantle melting responsible for the accretion of a thick igneous crust. Distinctive structural features of volcanic margins are syn-magmatic and continentward-dipping crustal faults accommodating the seaward flexure of the igneous crust. Volcanic margins present along-axis a magmatic and tectonic segmentation with wavelength similar to adjacent slow-spreading ridges. Their 3D organisation suggests a connection between loci of mantle melting at depths and zones of strain concentration within the lithosphere. Break-up would start and propagate from localized thermally-softened lithospheric zones. These ‘soft points’ could be localized over small-scale convection cells found at the bottom of the lithosphere, where adiabatic mantle melting would specifically occur. The particular structure of the brittle crust at volcanic passive margins could be interpreted by active and sudden oceanward flow of both the unstable hot mantle and the ductile part of the lithosphere during the break-up stage. To cite this article: L. Geoffroy, C. R. Geoscience 337 (2005).

Influence of two major phase transitions on mantle convection with moving and subducting plates

A series of numerical simulation has been carried out to explore the influence of two major phase transitions at 410 km and 660 km phase boundaries on mantle convection with self-consistently moving and subducting plates, that is, on the “plate-like regime” of mantle convection. The degree of Clausius-Clapeyron slope at the 660 km phase boundary is systematically changed within the range estimated by high pressure experiments. On the plate-like regime where moving plates continuously subduct, as the Clausius-Clapeyron slope is steepened, the upwelling plumes originating from the bottom thermal boundary layer are less buoyant owing to the increase of average mantle temperature, so that the upwelling plumes are hard to penetrate through the 660 km phase boundary. Investigations reveal that three types of small upwelling plumes in the upper mantle are found on the plate-like regime: (1) The secondary plumes directly derived from the upwelling plumes from the lower mantle, (2) the passive upwellings from the shallow parts of the lower mantle due to the diffused return flow by continuously subducting plates, and (3) the secondary plumes originating from the 660 km phase boundary caused by the development of the small-scale convection cells confined in the upper mantle.

Variable azimuthal anisotropy in Earth's lowermost mantle.

A persistent reversal in the expected polarity of the initiation of vertically polarized shear waves that graze the D'' layer (the layer at the boundary between the outer core and the lower mantle of Earth) in some regions starts at the arrival time of horizontally polarized shear waves. Full waveform modeling of the split shear waves for paths beneath the Caribbean requires azimuthal anisotropy at the base of the mantle. Models with laterally coherent patterns of transverse isotropy with the hexagonal symmetry axis of the mineral phases tilted from the vertical by as much as 20 degrees are consistent with the data. Small-scale convection cells within the mantle above the D'' layer may cause the observed variations by inducing laterally variable crystallographic or shape-preferred orientation in minerals in the D'' layer.