Small Landscape Research Articles

Performance and Water Conservation Potential of Multi-Stream, Multi-Trajectory Rotating Sprinklers for Landscape Irrigation

Multi-stream, multi-trajectory rotating (MSMTR) sprinklers represent an alternative to fixed spray heads for the irrigation of small landscape areas. Preliminary investigations have suggested that MSMTR sprinklers can apply water with higher distribution uniformities than fixed sprays, offering the potential for water conservation. This article presents the results of field audits comparing the performance of fixed spray and MSMTR sprinklers in landscape irrigation. Individual zones were audited before and after a conversion from fixed spray to MSMTR sprinklers. Average low quarter distribution uniformity (DULQ) improved by 0.26, from 0.44 to 0.70, after the conversions. Average low half run time multiplier (RTMLH) decreased by 0.39. New performance measures, directly related to water conservation, were developed and applied to the field audit data. Water conservation diagrams were used to illustrate performance improvements and the potential for water conservation due to improved performance. Estimated water conservation potential due to the conversion from fixed spray to MSMTR sprinklers depends on pre-conversion uniformity and choice of run time multiplier (RTM). The average water conservation potential estimated for the fixed spray to MSMTR conversion ranged from 22% to 40% of the pre-conversion application depending on pre-conversion choice of RTM. A good single-point estimate for water conservation potential due to fixed spray to MSMTR conversion is 31%. MSMTR sprinklers have lower precipitation rates than fixed spray heads, and may be expected to need longer run times to meet a given required amount. The higher uniformity of the MSMTR sprinkler partially mitigates this. Sample calculations assuming no runoff from the higher precipitation rate fixed sprays indicate the net MSMTR systems may need to run 1.7 to 2.3 times as long as fixed sprays used to run to deliver the same net application.

Conflicting Visions

Research for this paper was prompted by the appearance of a group of nine small landscape paintings of the Darling Downs area of Queensland, displayed in the Seeing the Collection exhibition at the University Art Museum (UAM), University of Queensland from 10 July 2004 until 23 January 2005. Relatively new to the collection (they were purchased in 2002), they are charming, small works, and are of interest principally because they are late-colonial depictions of an area that was of great significance in the history of Queensland.

Accuracy and congruency of three different digital land-use maps

For numerous model applications in the earth and environmental sciences, digital land-use data are indispensable as a source of information on the geographical distribution of the land-use/cover. Therefore, the land-use data sets ATKIS, CORINE Land Cover, and Landsat TM classifications are widely used in Germany. However, the users of these data mostly do not have information on their quality. In this study, the accuracy of the three above-mentioned digital land-use maps was evaluated a posteriori based on the results of a field inventory in two test areas with a total area of 17 km 2. The results show that the overall accuracy of the land-use maps varies from 0.692 to 0.876. For the individual land-use classes, the user accuracy ranged from less than 0.001 to 0.991. In this paper, the positional congruency of the land-use class polygons among the three maps was also evaluated for a larger study region of 670 km 2 in the state of Hessen (Germany). This region is a small structured landscape with a relatively high portion of fallow land. In the analysis, the following six land-use classes were considered: urban and traffic areas, forest, water, arable land, pastures and meadows, and fallow land (including other uses). The results showed that the congruency of the land-use classes forest and urban and traffic areas is higher than the congruency of the land-use classes of the open land (arable land, pastures and meadows, fallow).

Habitat use and Hunting Behaviour of Common BuzzardsButeo buteoWintering in South-Western Poland

During seven winter seasons (1993/1994–1999/2000) 107 roadside counts (28 km each) in agricultural area of south-western Poland were conducted. From among 1526 Buzzards, 1293 were recorded in winter months (November—February) and 233 in March. Birds were non-randomly distributed on nine vegetation types met along the transect route. Permanent papilionaceous crops, along with cereal stubbles, margin habitats, meadows and maize stubbles were preferentially used, whereas bare tillage and winter cereals were avoided. In general, Buzzards preferred habitats of the least amount in the studied area and avoided those which dominated. These data support the idea of high importance of small landscape structures for the biodiversity protection in intensively used farmland. During winter months, most Buzzards (59.5%) were perched when first sighted, most often on trees and in the middle part of their height. The percent of birds sitting on the ground amounted to 34.7%. The smallest amount of individuals (5.8% ) was observed flying (flap-sailing, hovering and soaring), however this activity significantly increased in March (up to 17.1%). The significance of various hunting methods for wintering Buzzards is discussed. Even though it is a typical perch hunting raptor, the method of hunting from the ground seems to be particularly suitable for the conditions of winter farmland: common scarcity of perches, poor and low vegetation, local and temporary prey concentrations.

Impacts of an agri-environment field margin prescription on the flora and fauna of arable farmland in different landscapes

The hypothesis that sown 6 m grass margins strips at the edges of arable fields have a positive impact on farmland biodiversity was tested using a paired field approach in southern England. A total of 42 fields were investigated, half with at least 3-year-old margin strips created under the UK agri-environment scheme Countryside Stewardship and half nearby control sites. The sites were grouped on the basis of average field size into small, intermediate or open landscape locations to examine landscape structure effects. Assessments of the flora, bird and territory numbers, bees, spiders, Orthoptera and Carabidae were made in early to mid-summer 2003. There were positive impacts on diversity or abundance for the flora, bees and Orthoptera. The herbaceous flora of the pre-existing boundary adjacent to sown 6 m strips was significantly more species-rich than controls, probably reflecting a buffer effect of the strip. Bees and Orthoptera, the latter of which were only found in field boundaries, were more abundant where strips were sited, reflecting added habitat resources. Bee numbers were significantly lower in field centres where there were no 6 m margin strips. There were no significant effects of sown strips on numbers of birds observed or bird territories, spiders or Carabidae, but also no negative impacts. Lycosid spiders were consistently more abundant in boundaries of small fields with 6 m margin strips. Linyphiidae were more abundant within the crop area of smaller fields. Amongst birds, wrens (Troglodytes troglodytes) were also more abundant in small fields, while yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella) were more abundant in open landscapes. The results confirm there are benefits to farmland biodiversity from introducing new margin strips at the edges of arable fields. More significantly, the success of agri-environment schemes, which will vary between taxa and species, can be dependent on landscape structure. Scheme administrators may need to address landscape structure and mean field size to achieve significant enhancement of populations of declining farmland species.

Using GIS to relate small mammal abundance and landscape structure at multiple spatial extents: the northern flying squirrel in Alberta, Canada

Summary It is common practice to evaluate the potential effects of management scenarios on animal populations using geographical information systems (GIS) that relate proximate landscape structure or general habitat types to indices of animal abundance. Implicit in this approach is that the animal population responds to landscape features at the spatial grain and extent represented in available digital map inventories. The northern flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus is of particular interest in North American forest management because it is known from the Pacific North‐West as a habitat specialist, a keystone species of old‐growth coniferous forest and an important disperser of hypogeous, mycorrhizal fungal spores. Using a GIS approach we tested whether the relative abundance of flying squirrel in northern Alberta, Canada, is related to old forest, conifer forest and relevant landscape features as quantified from management‐based digital forest inventories. We related squirrel abundance, estimated through live trapping, to habitat type (forest composition: conifer, mixed‐wood and deciduous) and landscape structure (stand height, stand age, stand heterogeneity and anthropogenic disturbance) at three spatial extents (50 m, 150 m and 300 m) around each site. Relative abundances of northern flying squirrel populations in northern and western Alberta were similar to those previously reported from other regions of North America. Capture rates were variable among sites, but showed no trends with respect to year or provincial natural region (foothills vs. boreal). Average flying squirrel abundance was similar in all habitats, with increased values within mixed‐wood stands at large spatial extents (300 m) and within deciduous‐dominated stands at smaller spatial extents (50 m). No relationship was found between squirrel abundance and conifer composition or stand age at any spatial extent. None of the landscape variables calculated from GIS forest inventories predicted squirrel abundance at the 50‐m or 150‐m spatial extents. However, at the 300‐m spatial extent we found a negative, significant relationship between average stand height and squirrel abundance. Synthesis and applications. Boreal and foothill populations of northern flying squirrel in Canada appear unrelated to landscape composition at the relatively large spatial resolutions characteristic of resource inventory data commonly used for management and planning in these regions. Flying squirrel populations do not appear clearly associated with old‐aged or conifer forests; rather, they appear as habitat generalists. This study suggests that northern, interior populations of northern flying squirrel are probably more related to stand‐level components of forest structure, such as food, microclimate (e.g. moisture) and understorey complexity, variables not commonly available in large‐scale digital map inventories. We conclude that the available digital habitat data potentially exclude relevant, spatially dependent information and could be used inappropriately for predicting the abundance of some species in management decision making.

Population structure and adult plant performance of forest herbs in three contrasting habitats

In Flanders, forests have been subjected to subsequent periods of reclamation and reforestation, leading to a mosaic of forest patches of various ages and with different abiotic conditions, depending on the duration and intensity of the past agricultural activities. While extensive research has been done on the relative importance of dispersal limitation and establishment limitation in explaining colonization patterns of so‐called ancient forest plant species, little is known about the viability of populations of these species once they have colonized recent forests. Therefore, a comparative study on population structure and plant performance was carried out for three forest plant species with different colonization capacity (Primula elatior, Geum urbanum and Arum maculatum) in three different habitat types: ancient forests, recently established forests and small landscape elements (hedgerows). Contrary to the expectation, it was shown that adult plant performance – a combination of vegetative as well as reproductive characteristics – of the three species was generally higher in recent forests and small landscape elements. This also led to higher seedling densities and proportions in these habitat types. Adult densities, however, were extremely low in newly established forests, suggesting reduced seedling and juvenile survival under these circumstances, probably due to higher light availability and hence increased competition from species like Urtica dioica. Although there might be no immediate establishment limitation, installing a shrub layer in recent forests might enhance survival and result in a stable population structure. Hedgerows on the other hand seemed to contain viable populations of certain forest plant species and can therefore function as an important colonization source when incorporated in recently established forests.

Impact of management and habitat on demographic traits of Primula vulgaris in an agricultural landscape

AbstractQuestion: Is demographic performance of Primula vulgaris correlated with habitat characteristics of the small landscape elements in which it occurs? Can we use this species as an indicator for species‐rich semi‐natural habitats?Location: Flanders, Belgium.Methods: To capture differences in demographic traits and habitat characteristics, both within and between populations, a two‐level survey was carried out. Population size and structure of 89 P. vulgaris populations in different types of small landscape elements was recorded in 1999. At plot level, densities of different life stages were determined and these were related to edaphic conditions and vegetation structure and composition.Results: Three different population types were distinguished: (1) dynamic populations, characterized by seedling and juvenile proportions, (2) normal populations with relatively more adults, but with considerable numbers of seedlings and juveniles and (3) senescent populations, mainly consisting of adults. Senescent populations were significantly smaller than populations with a dynamic demographic structure. At plot level, comparison of demographic characteristics between different management regimes revealed that recruitment rates and total plant density of P. vulgaris were highest in plots that received a regime that included mowing and clearing of ditch banks whereas densities were lower along forest edges. For these plots, it was shown that nutrient levels were higher. Densities of adults as well as juvenile and seedling densities were negatively correlated with vegetation height.Conclusions: Local disturbance and heterogeneity may mask the relationship between unfavourable conditions and demographic characteristics at population level, but it is clear that in small populations recruitment needs to be lifted to guarantee its persistence. Performance of P. vulgaris in small landscape elements can be a first indication of plant species diversity in small landscape elements.

Impact of management and habitat on demographic traits of Primula vulgaris in an agricultural landscape

Question: Is demographic performance of Primula vulgaris correlated with habitat characteristics of the small landscape elements in which it occurs? Can we use this species as an indicator for species-rich semi-natural habitats? Location: Flanders, Belgium. Methods: To capture differences in demographic traits and habitat characteristics, both within and between populations, a two-level survey was carried out. Population size and structure of 89 P. vulgaris populations in different types of small landscape elements was recorded in 1999. At plot level, densities of different life stages were determined and these were related to edaphic conditions and vegetation structure and composition. Results: Three different population types were distinguished: (1) dynamic populations, characterized by seedling and juvenile proportions, (2) normal populations with relatively more adults, but with considerable numbers of seedlings and juveniles and (3) senescent populations, mainly consisting of adults. Senescent populations were significantly smaller than populations with a dynamic demographic structure. At plot level, comparison of demographic characteristics between different management regimes revealed that recruitment rates and total plant density of P. vulgaris were highest in plots that received a regime that included mowing and clearing of ditch banks whereas densities were lower along forest edges. For these plots, it was shown that nutrient levels were higher. Densities of adults as well as juvenile and seedling densities were negatively correlated with vegetation height. Conclusions: Local disturbance and heterogeneity may mask the relationship between unfavourable conditions and demographic characteristics at population level, but it is clear that in small populations recruitment needs to be lifted to guarantee its persistence. Performance of P. vulgaris in small landscape elements can be a first indication of plant species diversity in small landscape elements.

Spatial patterns in land cover of exurbanizing watersheds in southeastern Michigan

Recent research into landscape composition and configuration, or pattern, seeks to identify a core set of metrics and determine whether these describe unique gradients or dimensions of pattern across diverse settings. Prior work generally has examined relatively large units, and it is uncertain whether this approach will prove useful with small (50–100 km 2) landscape units such as the sub-catchment of headwater streams. We estimated 25 pattern variables for the 109 sub-catchment of the Huron and Raisin river basins in southeastern Michigan, which are similar in terrain but represent, respectively, urbanizing and agricultural conditions. Three principal components analyses (PCA) performed on sub-watersheds within the combined area, and for each basin separately, identified five axes that explained ∼80% of the variation in landscape pattern. The first and strongest component described a fragmentation gradient ranging from landscapes dominated by a single land cover type to more diverse, patchy landscapes, and was similar in all three analyses. Variables quantifying variation in patch size were related to the second component in each analysis. Components three through five quantified different gradients in land cover pattern among the analyses, suggesting that gradients of variation in land cover spatial patterns quantified by later components are unique to each landscape. Pattern metrics were correlated with proportion of land in a land cover class, especially for proportion agricultural and proportion urban land, which exhibited the broadest land cover gradients in the study area. Moreover, a number of relationships were non-linear, indicating that the same value for a variable could occur in two different landscapes. Overall, we find that a suite of commonly used landscape metrics typically applied to large landscape units provides a similar basis for the quantitative description of the major gradients of variation in land cover spatial patterns when applied to small landscape units.

Analysis of hyperspectral data for estimation of temperate forest canopy nitrogen concentration: comparison between an airborne (aviris) and a spaceborne (hyperion) sensor

Field studies among diverse biomes demonstrate that mass-based nitrogen concentration at leaf and canopy scales is strongly related to carbon uptake and cycling. Combined field and airborne imaging spectrometry studies demonstrate the capacity for accurate empirical estimation of forest canopy N concentration and other biochemical constituents at scales from forest stands to small landscapes. In this paper, we report on the utility of the first space-based imaging spectrometer, Hyperion, for estimation of temperate forest canopy N concentration as compared to that achieved with the airborne high-altitude imaging spectrometer, the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS). Overall accuracy of Hyperion estimates of forest canopy N concentration, as compared with field measurements, were within 0.25% dry mass, and AVIRIS-based estimates were within 0.19% dry mass, each well within the accuracy required to distinguish among forested ecosystems in nitrogen status.

Modeling growth and densification processes in suburban regions—simulation of landscape transition with spatial agents

Urban sprawl is an essential environmental issue to be monitored and forecasted in order to think about alternatives that could lead to a more sustainable future development. Thus, the objective of the project presented here is to simulate the past and future transformation of suburban land use patterns in the Vienna Region. (The paper describes some results of the project, “STAU-Wien” (City–Suburb relations and development in the Vienna Region), was carried out during 2000–2002). The paper discusses driving forces of suburban growth, and presents a model that simulates polycentric development of suburban systems. The model introduces different settlement growth velocities within the suburban region considering housing area densification and land use change from open space to built up area. In particular, the model takes into account suburban population migration and commercial start ups controlled by regional and local factors (attractiveness/constraints) in the suburban Vienna Region: large and small scale accessibility (traveling time to the core city, access to motorways), land prices, landscape attractiveness, social and commercial services supply, traffic exposure obstacles as well as (land use) zoning constraints. The approach concentrates on a Spatial Agent Model to stimulate regional migration and allocation decisions of households and commercial enterprises aiming in the selection of target municipalities. Land use change will finally be performed by a cellular automaton to decide on densification and land use change. The model has been developed and applied to simulate prior and future landscape transition processes for the suburban region in the surroundings of Vienna, Austria.

Response of the small mammal community to changes in western French agricultural landscapes

We studied the response of the small mammal community (rodents and shrews) to recent changes in agricultural systems of western French landscapes. Work was conducted on twelve sites representative of the diversity of farming systems in this region. The characteristics of small mammal assemblages in each site were assessed using Barn Owl (Tyto alba) pellet analysis. Relationships between small mammal data and landscape descriptors were performed through co-inertia analysis. Richness and specific composition of the small mammal community were not affected by the degree of cultivation but variations in species frequency could be observed. The prevalence of some species allowed us to distinguish three main assemblages which were characteristic of low, medium, and high intensified landscapes. Status and life traits of these species showed that intensification of agriculture has negative effects on density of rare and habitat-specialist species while it favours habitat-generalist species, some of them being known to exhibit fluctuating density. The two main ways of agricultural intensification (maize vs. other crops) did not show any significant relationships with species assemblages. Our results gave us the opportunity to suggest recommendations on agronomical and conservation problems that may arise from these changes of agriculture in western France.

Cultural, environmental and historical controls of vegetation patterns and the modern conservation setting on the island of Martha's Vineyard, USA

AbstractAim Long‐term studies of landscape dynamics in relationship to changes in cultural, environmental and disturbance factors have great potential for increasing the understanding of modern ecological conditions and improving the development of conservation plans that incorporate historically important processes. In this study we compiled archaeological, historical, palaeoecological and ecological information on Martha's Vineyard to investigate temporal and spatial variation in landscape pattern and process. Although <250 km2, this island off the Massachusetts coast embraces remarkable geographical variation and harbours uncommon plant and animal assemblages that make it a national priority for conservation.Location The study embraces the entire island of Martha's Vineyard, which lies c. 8 km south of Cape Cod and the mainland of Massachusetts. The triangular‐shaped island contains three major geomorphological regions: moraine forms a series of irregular and subparallel ridges and hills 40 to over 80 m in elevation that terminate at the western end of the island in high cliffs at Gay Head and Squibnocket; sandy glacial outwash overlying moraine spreads down the northeastern end of the island forming a region of low undulating hills and shallow depressions 15–30 m in elevation, and an extensive outwash plain stretches across the central and eastern part of the island and slopes gently from 30‐m elevation in the north to <3 m towards the southern coast where it is dissected by a series of north–south trending valleys that terminate in coastal ponds. In all areas except the southwest corner the island is underlain by >100 m of Quaternary and coastal plain sediments.Methods Long‐term records of vegetation, fire, natural disturbance and human activity were compiled over the past 2000 years and across the physiographic variation on the island. Palaeoecological interpretations of vegetation, fire, climate and land‐use history are based on a series of eleven stratigraphies from ponds, lakes and wetlands; archaeological data were compiled from recent surveys; historical data were assembled from census and town records, fire records, aerial photographs and cartographic series; and ecological information was derived from forestry and conservation surveys and field sampling of vegetation, soils and site characteristics. Extensive use was made of geographical information systems and multivariate statistical analyses.Results Spatial patterns in vegetation over the past 2000 years have varied strongly with soils and physiography, which are also associated with major differences in fire and land‐use history. Mesic hardwood forests that seldom burned occupy the western moraine, open oak‐pine and hardwood forests occur on the frequently burned and dissected outwash plain along the south coast, and pine‐oak forests cover the central outwash plain, which extends across much of the island and displays among the highest charcoal values in New England. Although a relatively large Native American population may have been an important source of fire ignitions there is no palynological or archaeological evidence that this culture cleared substantial areas or directly altered the extent of forest cover. Shifts in forest composition and fire were associated with regional climate change during the pre‐European period, whereas pronounced changes in forest cover and the development of extensive open‐land areas of grassland, shrubland and heathland were driven by European land use.The contrasting characteristics, land‐use histories and ownerships of different regions of the island yield contrasting conservation priorities and management directions. The mesic morainal forests have changed modestly in composition during the historical period and can effectively support a distinct woodland flora if adequately protected. The large outwash plain is broken by non‐native plantations but could yield an effective landscape mosaic of oak and pine forests interrupted by extensive scrub oak barrens that could be maintained through prescribed fire or cutting. In contrast, the south shore grasslands and shrublands are the product of intensive agricultural land use. These habitats and their unusual suite of plants and animals require traditional land‐use practices, or their substitutes, in order to reverse the ongoing increase in woody species and to maintain these cultural landscapes.Main Conclusion The biotic, edaphic, disturbance and historical diversity across this relatively small landscape is remarkable and yet poses many challenges to interpretation and conservation. The modern landscape can only be understood through knowledge of its long‐term past and can be best managed in the context of the natural and cultural factors that have shaped it through time.

Temporal changes (1986–1999) in populations of primrose ( Primula vulgaris Huds.) in an agricultural landscape and implications for conservation

In Belgium, Primula vulgaris is a rare and declining species. Its fate is bound up with the ever-changing agricultural landscape in northwestern Belgium and analysis of historical data showed a shrinking distribution area during the last decades. Contrary to the situation in England and France, most of the populations are situated in small landscape elements in the agricultural landscape and not in woodland. The population size distribution is skewed to very small populations (<10 individuals) with few younger life stages in small populations, higher proportions of older adults and unequal flower morph numbers. The changes in several population traits during a 13-year interval are correlated with initial population status, indicating that small populations tend to be more prone to extinction than larger ones. Small remnant woodland patches may be seen as ‘safe sites’: in this environment population sizes were more or less stable during the 13-year period whereas populations in ditches around arable fields were particularly susceptible to decline. Under current conditions, the long term survival of the species in small landscape elements is highly critical unless land use practices change drastically in the near future. The minimum viable populations concept and management of small landscape elements are discussed.

Changes in pin-thrum ratios in populations of the heterostyle Primula vulgaris Huds.: Does imbalance affect population persistence?

Summary The heterostyle Primula vulgaris is a rare and declining species in Northern Belgium; its presence is restricted to a limited number of small landscape elements in a matrix of intensively managed agricultural land. In 1986 and 1999 we recorded numbers of pin-thrum flower morphs in respectively 34 and 89 populations. No structural imbalance in flower morph numbers was found, but imbalances were significantly larger in small populations. Moreover, relative imbalance also increased between 1986 and 1999. Population persistence however, was not correlated with morph imbalance: changes in population size between the two survey periods did not depend on initial flower morph imbalance. Results are compared with other heterostyly-related population research in Primula species and the relative importance of deterministic and stochastic processes for population persistence are discussed. To conclude, the introduction of missing morphs into relic populations with only pin or thrum plants is suggested to reduce pollinator-limited seed set.

Landscape ecological construction in rural China: Theory and application

In landscape with overpopulation, intensive management for economic production, and where even small natural-vegetation patches are scarce, ecological conservation generally must be developed in the course of economic development. Thus “landscape ecological construction” has evolved in China. This approach adds spatial elements and alters landscape pattern to strengthen inter-ecosystem linkages, improve functioning of damaged ecosystems, and increase productivity and stability of the whole landscape. Five examples of managed landscapes in China are presented: dike-pond systems in a river delta; multi-pond system in a rice paddy landscape; field-grass-wood grid system on unstable sand dunes; shelterbelt network in a crop field area; and field-grass-wood mosaic system on highly erodible hilly farmland. These indicate that ecological conditions can be improved along with increased economic production. Altering landscape structure and ecological flows by introducing small landscape elements in distinct spatial patterns is considered a key to the results. This reshaping of the land has focused on changing patch size, regularity of arrangement, biological and hydrological corridors, and networks, the matrix and grain size. It suggests that such changes can increase negative feedbacks and increase stability. Finally, planning and design principles are pinpointed for the landscape ecological construction process.

Preserving cultural landscapes in America

Preserving Cultural Landscapes in America, A. R. Alanen and Robert Z. Melnick (eds), Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, 250 pp., $23.95 (p/b) Over the last half century the scope of conservation has grown ever wider. This book illustrates this trend at its widest thus far, and raises some of the fundamental questions about the conservation effort that seem particularly appropriate when considering entire landscapes. How is a landscape delineated? What protection tools can be effective on such a scale? Whose landscape is being protected and for whom, given that most landscapes are historical palimpsests? How are the inevitable issues of contestation identified and dealt with? This, Dolores Hayden argues in her foreword, is a relatively recent field of scholarly research, and the editors make a similar point in their introduction about the recent growth of broader public concern. Yet it seems to have lengthy roots in American scholarship (Groth and Bressi, 1997): it stems from research in vernacular culture (the work of Wilbur Zelinsky), the ordinary qualities of landscape (which the writing of J.B. Jackson brought to wide attention), and an identification and appreciation of national characteristics in landscape (cf. Michael Conzen's Making of the American Landscape, 1990). To me, it is this rich history that allows the diverse essays in this collection to be such mines of fact and concept. The editors are to be commended in their selection and editorial control. In attempting to explore the meaning of the concept of `cultural landscape', the editors resort to many examples (pp. 3-6), but fail to give a wholly satisfactory definition. This is hardly surprising as this is a more elastic concept than many in the conservation sphere. These are large or small landscapes, showing human activity and elements of nature, but encompassing both planned and unplanned landscapes. `Culture' refers to society both as a whole and in sub-sets, thus ethnic cultural distinctiveness and the character and appearance (to use English conservation terms) that contribute so much to place identity are all involved. They pose a key question arriving from this flexible concept: `the very concept of cultural landscape preservation may sound like an oxymoron to some people; because cultural landscapes are composed of natural elements that grow, mature, erode, move, die, and revive once again, how can they possibly be preserved?' (p. 3). The book as a whole is a very good attempt at answering this puzzle. Schuyler and O'Donnell explore the history and preservation of urban parks and cemeteries. In the UK this would not be questioned, as these types of place have been protected as conservation areas for over three decades. However, there are clear conflicts between active recreational uses and preservation, particularly of an original designed layout. Alanen looks explicitly at `the ordinary', the vernacular landscapes of small towns and rural areas. Their protection reflects a move away from `placelessness'. Yet once an ordinary landscape is identified for national preservation, it ceases to be ordinary. There is a key conflict here that has not yet been resolved. Aponte-PareA s reviews preservation in the context of Puerto Rican barrios, particularly in New York. These migrants tend to live in very poor areas within an alien way of life, and build structures (often for recreational use) recalling traditional structures of their culture. …

Maintaining quality through evolving strategy: the TVS Partnership

In 1993, the TVS Partnership Proprietary Limited (TVS) was the first small business to be awarded the prestigious Australian Quality Award (AQA). TVS’s core business is a small architectural and landscape firm. This case study traces the firm over time, both before and after winning the award. Since 1993, TVS has been successful in improving its quality, despite adverse industry trends. It has grown and diversified into new areas, e.g. hotel management, and property development, and has developed an innovative approach to building management. While successful, the company and its directors wrestle with various growth and operations‐related issues.

GIS Models of Past Vegetation: An Example from Northern England, 10,000–5000 BP

Archaeological interpretations of past societies, particularly those of past hunter-gatherer groups, have traditionally drawn heavily on evidence for past environments and environmental changes. Ironically however our understanding of these environments is typically far from ideal, particularly at the scale most relevant to broad settlement patterns. Limitations lie not just in the lack of evidence, but also the nature of the evidence that we have for past environments. Most notably, descriptions of environments and environmental change tend to be either very simplistic at the large scale, or detailed, but limited to small scale local landscapes. It is thus difficult to find regional reconstructions to relate to interpretations or models of population and settlement (particularly important when considering mobile populations). The models described here have been developed in order to improve understanding of large scale spatial changes in terrestrial vegetation. The limitations and potentials for developing models of vegetation patterns are considered, and one such model (constructed using GIS techniques) of changes in the distribution of woodland types in northern England from the Early Holocene is described.