Smallholder Livestock Farmers Research Articles

Supporting smallholder livestock farmers’ adaptive capacity to climate change in Kenya: What role does entrepreneurial orientation and uptake of CSA play?

Supporting smallholder livestock farmers’ adaptive capacity to climate change in Kenya: What role does entrepreneurial orientation and uptake of CSA play?

Factors Determining Knowledge Acquisition in Livestock Waste Management Training Held by Animal Husbandry Training Centre at Songgoriti, Batu - Indonesia

Abstract The livestock industry plays a substantial role in the Indonesian economy as the industry provides a significant share of the country’s national income. The industry also engages labour in rural and sub-urban areas since traditional smallholder livestock dominates the industry in the country. One problem in the smallholder livestock is the inadequate capacity of farmers leading to mediocre livestock management, generating polluting waste and low income. A special training curriculum for smallholder farmers is expected to improve farmer capacity. Animal Husbandry Training Centre at Songgoriti regularly holds special training in waste management for smallholder livestock farmers. This study aimed to analyse the training outcome and factors influencing knowledge attainment resulting from the training. The training outcome was measured using incremental knowledge related to training subjects. Socio-demographic-economic characteristics of training participants were considered the determinants of training outcomes. The analysis employed a multiple regression model. Data were compiled from the training centre’s reports and documentation of training held in 2021 and 2022. The results show that the training outcome was apparent. Some participants showed good knowledge acquisition, and some others did not. The starting point of existing knowledge mattered. Some socio-demographic-economic characteristics significantly determined incremental knowledge acquisition. The study suggests training participants should be grouped based on the knowledge baseline. The advanced participants are separated from the usual ones whenever possible to reach high training outcomes.

Impact of Subsidy Removal on Smallholder Livestock Farmers' Productivity in Nigeria

Purpose: The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers' productivity in Nigeria. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: The impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers in Nigeria resulted in both challenges and opportunities. Initially, it led to increased input costs and decreased profitability, but it also spurred innovation and efficiency improvements. However, limited access to credit and inadequate support structures hindered overall productivity. Tailored policy interventions are crucial to address these challenges and promote sustainable growth in the sector. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Public choice theory, theory of economic adjustment & dependency theory may be used to anchor future studies on analyze the impact of subsidy removal on smallholder livestock farmers' productivity in Nigeria. Cooperative farming models encourage resource pooling and collective action, reducing costs and enhancing market access. By tailoring subsidy reintroduction to the most vulnerable sectors, policies can be more targeted and efficient, ensuring optimal use of resources.

Crossbreeding and its implication for small-scale animal agriculture in Africa: Outcomes, both positive and negative, and future prospects

<p>African animal genetic resources are diverse and have been the subject of crossbreeding for decades to improve local livestock and poultry populations. However, the literature on crossbreeding performance has been inconsistent, with many projects failing due to various reasons. This has led to mixed support and criticism for crossbreeding in small-scale animal agriculture. The review examines the achievements, problems, and future prospects for livestock and poultry genetic improvement through crossbreeding in Africa’s small-scale animal agriculture. Community-based Breeding Practices (CBBP) can be seen as a community livestock development strategy that mobilizes local animal genetic resources and boosts smallholder livestock producers’ ability to collaborate in resource-scarce communities. Genome sequencing is seen as the future cornerstone of promoting crossbreeding in Africa, but it should be based on consideration of the socioeconomic context of small-scale animal husbandry and local livestock production conditions. Smallholder farmers, who are the major custodians of local animal biodiversity, have faced challenges such as genotype and environmental interaction, lack of funding, poor laws, and lack of farmer participation. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of phenomics and genomic prediction in improving animal genetic resources in Africa, but it also emphasizes the need for further research and development in this area. The study suggests that modern breeding technologies (genomics and phenomics) and training of smallholder livestock farmers in improved animal husbandry management practices can be used to enhance food and nutrition security for African rural households. This review examines the effects of crossbreeding through the decades on small-scale livestock farming in Africa, including positive and negative outcomes as well as future implications.<strong></strong></p>

Seroepidemological investigation of Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. in pigs reared by tribal communities and small-holder livestock farmers in Northeastern India.

Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. are critical tissue-dwelling foodborne zoonotic parasites associated with pork consumption and pig rearing. Despite being a major pig-rearing region in the country, Northeastern India has not undergone any investigation regarding the presence of T. gondii and Trichinella spp. in pigs. Therefore, this study aims to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii and Trichinella spp. and identify associated risk factors in pigs reared by tribal communities and small-holder livestock farmers in the northeastern region of India. In a cross-sectional serological survey, 400 pigs from 400 households across five northeastern states of India underwent testing for the seroprevalence of porcine toxoplasmosis and trichinellosis. Serum samples (80 from each state) were analyzed using commercially available ELISA assays. Data on backyard farm characteristics and various management aspects were collected, and risk factors linked with prevalence were analyzed through univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis. The findings revealed that the apparent and true prevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies were 45% (40.12-49.88, 95% CI) and 45.7% (40.7-50.69, 95% CI), respectively. As for anti- Trichinella antibodies, both the apparent and true prevalence were 0.75% (-0.1-1.6, 95% CI). The univariate and multivariate analyses indicated that age above 24 months (OR 7.20, 95% CI 2.45-23.71), exposure to cats (OR = 5.87, 95% CI 2.55-14.05), and farms operating for breeding purposes (OR = 5.60, 95% CI 3.01-11.04) were significant risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of T. gondii. This study marks the initial documentation of the seroprevalence of T. gondii and Trichinella spp. in pigs reared by tribal communities in Northeastern India. The results emphasize the significance of these parasites as foodborne zoonotic threats in the region, potentially posing substantial public health risks, especially within tribal and rural communities. The insights derived from this research could be valuable in formulating targeted preventive and control strategies against T. gondii and Trichinella spp. in pigs, not only in this region but also in areas with similar rearing practices.

Why Livelihoods Matter in the Gendering of Household Water Insecurity

Abstract One of the most pressing and immediate climate concerns globally is inadequate and unsafe household water. The livelihoods of smallholder crop and livestock farmers are especially vulnerable to these challenges. Past research suggests that water insecurity is highly gendered, and women are theorized to be more aware of and impacted by water insecurity than men. Our study reengages this literature through a livelihood lens, comparing gendered perception of household water insecurity across crop and livestock subsistence modalities in a semiarid region of Burkina Faso in the Sahel region of West Africa, where water insecurity is closely intertwined with both seasonality and rainfall unpredictability. Our mixed-methods ethnographic study sampled matched men and women in households with water insecurity data collected from 158 coresident spousal pairs who engaged primarily in pastoralism or agriculture. Contrary to predictions from the existing literature, men engaged in livestock husbandry perceived greater water insecurity than matched women in the same household. We suggest this reflects men’s responsibility for securing water for the animals—which consume most of the household’s water among livestock farmers. In contrast, men engaged in cropping perceive less water insecurity than women in the same household, aligning with predictions from past research. Our findings suggest that the relationship between gender and water insecurity is more highly nuanced and related to livelihood strategies than previously recognized, with significant implications for how water insecurity is conceptualized theoretically and methodologically in the contexts of people’s everyday management and experience of the most immediate and proximate climate-related challenges.

Social media network analysis of Smallholder livestock farming communities in the United Kingdom

The creation of targeted policies and actions to help small-scale livestock keepers and reduce the risks associated with disease outbreaks in this sector is hampered by the scarcity of information about smallholder farmers. Smallholders play a crucial part in disease outbreaks containment, hence there is a need for better monitoring methods that take this population into account while gathering data. According to the literature, these communities frequently use social media as a channel for communication and information exchange. In this study we conducted social network analysis of an influential smallholder within the UK and visualised the user follower network. Additionally, we performed influential user analysis, Twitter user categorisation, and community detection to uncover more insights into the livestock farming networks. Our findings reveal distinct communities within the smallholder farming sector and identify influential users with the potential to impact information dissemination and animal health practices. The study also highlights the role of community structure in surveillance and control of animal diseases and emphasises the need for further research to refine our understanding of these communities and their unique characteristics. This work contributes to the growing body of literature on small-scale livestock farming in the UK and underscores the importance of incorporating smallholder communities into disease surveillance and control efforts.

Understanding the Indicators of Adaptive Capacity Measurements among the Asals Smallholder Livestock Farmers in Kenya

Understanding the Indicators of Adaptive Capacity Measurements among the Asals Smallholder Livestock Farmers in Kenya

Sustainable small-scale animal agriculture and food security in Africa

<p>For Africa, smallholder livestock farming is crucial for rural livelihood and food security. Understanding the connections between food security, gender inequality, and climate change can help us find solutions to Africa’s persistent food crisis. Women’s participation in small-scale animal agriculture helps ensure the food security of households; however, climate change has a detrimental effect on animal productivity, so prioritizing climate-smart animal husbandry techniques is critical. The shift in animal agriculture toward sustainability must be fueled by gender-sensitive strategies. Production and food security will improve through a transdisciplinary strategy that recognizes the connections among small-scale animal agriculture, climate change, and gender issues. Policies that are adapted to local conditions and encourage equitable growth in small-scale animal agriculture will be necessary to address the challenges this sector faces and improve food security. The majority of developing nations have institutional and technical obstacles that could prohibit the small-scale farming sector from participating in new food security efforts aimed at enhancing rural livelihoods. Therefore, it is highly doubtful that any strategy created to improve food security while downplaying the importance of smallholder agriculture will be long-term viable. The discussion makes clear the importance of small-scale animal agriculture and offers potential solutions that could be adopted to transform the small-scale animal agriculture sector to increase its value and enhance food security across the continent.</p><p><strong> </strong></p>

Case Studies on Impacts of Climate Change on Smallholder Livestock Production in Egypt and Spain

Climate change is one of the hot topics of this decade and seriously affects all economic production sectors including the livestock farming sector. In many scenarios, the Mediterranean region is expected to experience unconventional and severe climate change that necessitates adopting effective strategies to improve the resilience of the livestock farming sector, particularly for smallholders. Here, we performed a cross-sectional survey of 277 smallholder livestock farmers in Egypt and 223 in Spain in order to (1) assess smallholder livestock farmers’ awareness of climate change and its potential impacts on animal performance, (2) identify climate change factors affecting animal productivity, and (3) identify the resilience of small-scale livestock farms in the region to the effects of climate change on animal productivity and existing and future needed adaptive measures. The results showed that just over 90% of respondents were aware of climate change and its potential effects on animal productivity, and just over 60% of smallholders in Spain obtained relevant knowledge through their own direct observation, while most smallholders in Egypt obtained knowledge through communication with other farmers and from the media. The role of extension advisors has diminished in the two countries, recording 0.36% in Egypt and 1.35% in Spain. The survey responses suggest that heat waves, humidity, and drought are the major climatic changes affecting smallholding animal production, representing 68.65, 16.34, and 15.01%, respectively. Climatic change appears to have affected primarily milk yield, wool production, and reproductive performance on the smallholding farms in our survey, while affecting meat production, mortality rate, and egg production to a smaller extent. As measures to buffer the effects of climate change, 25% of respondents in Egypt indicated that they have adopted nutritional strategies, 36% indicated that they manage housing conditions, and 6% indicated that they use genetically improved animal breeds. The corresponding percentages among respondents in Spain were 15%, 28%, and 4%, respectively. In conclusion, awareness about climate change as well as adaptation measures are the major axes to sustaining the growing demand for livestock products. Furthermore, mitigation strategies are keys to limiting the upcoming extent of climate change, and there are several adaptation strategies.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine brucellosis among smallholder livestock keepers in Rungwe district, Tanzania

The objective of this study was to determine the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of smallholder livestock farmers on brucellosis in Rungwe District, Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted among cattle keepers practicing communal grazing in the district using a structured questionnaire. One hundred cattle keepers provided information about their KAP for brucellosis. Out of 100 participants, 12.8% did not know how the disease is transmitted in cattle, 20.5% stated mating, 37.2% stated placenta and 29.5% stated shared grazing area as the main transmission routes of the disease. Some respondents reported abortion (20.5%), bull infertility (25.6%) and weak calves (38.5%) as clinical signs in cattle, while 15.4% did not know the clinical signs. Drinking raw milk (23.1%), assisting delivery or handling placenta (16.7%), slaughtering infected animals (29.5%) and handling abortion cases (21.8%) were reported as means of brucellosis transmission to humans. A total of 11.5% of participants did not know the symptoms of brucellosis in humans, while 16.7%, 47.4% and 24.4% cited fever, headache and flu-like symptoms, respectively, as symptoms of brucellosis in humans. Most respondents had bad attitudes and practices toward brucellosis; for instance, 59.8% of respondents consumed unboiled milk. It is concluded that most livestock farmers in Rungwe district have poor knowledge of brucellosis, and their attitudes and practices put them and susceptible cattle on their farms at risk of contracting the disease. Education campaigns on the disease prevalence, socioeconomic effects, mode of transmission and control measures are recommended to control brucellosis in Rungwe District and the country at large.

Nexus between Social Vulnerability and Resilience to Agricultural Drought amongst South African Smallholder Livestock Households

Livestock farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa rely on rain-fed agriculture, which exposes them to the risks of agricultural drought. Agricultural drought has become a significant threat to the extreme mortality of livestock, thus negatively impacting social vulnerability and household resilience to agricultural drought and extreme events. Researchers rarely empirically assess the connection between vulnerability and resilience, which are highly related concepts. By measuring and connecting vulnerability and resilience concepts closely related to disasters such as agricultural drought, this article makes a contribution to the body of disaster literature. The study aimed to empirically examine the relationship between smallholder livestock farming households’ social vulnerability and their resilience to agricultural drought. A survey of 217 smallholder livestock farmers was conducted. The Social Vulnerability Index (SVI), the Agricultural Drought Resilience Index (ADRI), and Pearson’s correlation coefficient were used for data analysis. A correlation was identified between resilience to agricultural drought and social vulnerability, indicating that smallholder livestock farmers are more susceptible to harm and lack the means to rebound effectively. Unsurprisingly, the majority of resource-poor smallholder livestock farmers (79%) lack safety nets during agricultural droughts. They are less resilient and more vulnerable households, leading them to social vulnerability. This study provides input/guidance to identify farming households with high social vulnerability and less resilience to threats and their capabilities of recouping and adopting after experiencing an agricultural drought. Additionally, looking at household resilience and social vulnerability to agricultural droughts could provide a way to pinpoint at-risk areas, assisting emergency planners in directing resources and intervention programs to those areas where assistance is most likely to be needed during disasters such as agricultural droughts. This implies that thorough policy intervention programs need to be tailored toward reducing damage or finding the path to recovery.

Determinants of smallholder livestock farmers’ adoption decisions of improved fodder technologies in Insiza District

The study investigated the factors that influence the extent of the use of fodder technologies in the Insiza District of Zimbabwe, as well as the reasons for their low adoption and the lower participation of women than men in fodder interventions. A mixed methods approach was used and data were collected using a structured questionnaire, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. The multi-stage sampling approach was used to generate a sample of 224 respondents who received training on fodder production from the Zimbabwe Resilience Building Fund (ZRBF) intervention. Using the ordered probit regression model, factors such as gender, education level attained, cattle herd size, total livestock units, land size, willingness to invest more in fodder, engagement in farm enterprises, and intensity of collaborations were found to significantly influence the number of improved fodder technologies adopted. In addition, farmers perceived that fodder technologies are beneficial. The imposition of externally determined innovations, as well as the scarcity of seed for fodder crops, were cited as the primary reasons for the low adoption of fodder technologies promoted prior to the ZRBF intervention. Findings also suggested the existence of gender-specific constraints emanating from the prevalence of a powerful patriarchal culture as the major factor limiting women’s participation in fodder interventions relative to men. Thus, the study recommends that the ZRBF and the government design well-packaged rural development policies, promote equitable gender participation and adopt participatory approaches when proffering solutions to local community problems. The study’s original contributions include the use of a mixed methods approach, a focus on the extent of fodder technology adoption rather than the probability of adoption, and an investigation into the reasons for women’s lower participation than men in fodder intervention.

Diversity of Food Insecurity Coping Strategies among Livestock Farmers in Northern Cape Province of South Africa

Small-scale livestock farmers in the drylands of South Africa are highly exposed to agricultural drought-related food insecurity. Research has used descriptive analyses and missed the need to index the diversity of coping strategies used for managing agricultural drought-induced food insecurity. This study was conducted to bridge this gap using a two-step procedure. Initially, the study identified the farmers’ coping strategies and food security status. A coping strategy diversity index was computed using the Shannon–Weiner method and its relationship with the food security status was determined. Secondly, the determinants of the coping strategy diversity index were explored using an ordered logit regression model after testing for the proportional odds assumption. A mixed methods approach was utilized and a standardized questionnaire was administered to 217 smallholder livestock farmers in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. The household food insecurity mean score (8.429 ± 7.105) from the household food insecurity scale (HFIAS) was significantly related to a higher diversity of coping strategies. Similar results were reported for the household food insecurity access prevalence (HFIAP) status. The different forms of support (e.g., cash, food, training and assets) had a significant (p < 0.05) and positive effect on the coping strategy diversity index among the households. Education, access to credit and insurance facilities and the frequency of droughts significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the diversity of coping strategies under drought conditions. The utilization of cash reserves and investment stocks also significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the extent of coping strategy diversity. The study recommended strengthening the functional and technical capacity pillars of dealing with agricultural drought through strategic partnerships between the government and livestock value chain players. This collaboration should target affordable credit lines tailor-made for farmers to cope with agricultural drought. If well-coordinated, these interventions should reduce food insecurity prevalence, especially during drought conditions among vulnerable smallholder livestock farmers. Lessons from this study could also inform future research on the effectiveness of the current agricultural drought coping strategies while expanding the diversity clusters over space and time.

Comparative nutritional evaluation of the leaves of selected plants from the Poaceae family (bamboos and grasses) for sustainable livestock production in Ghana

BackgroundSustainable animal feeding is essential for reducing poverty among Ghanaian smallholder livestock farmers. However, seasonality has a severe impact on the availability and quality of conventional animal feedstuffs, necessitating alternate feed sources.ObjectiveThis study evaluated and compared the nutritional characteristics of the leaves of three bamboo species namely; Bambusa balcooa (Beema), Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro and Bambusa vulgaris; and three conventional types of grass, namely; Cenchrus purpureus, Megathyrsus maximus, and Brachiaria decumbens.Materials and methodsThe plant biomasses were subjected to the standard analytical procedures of proximate and detergent fiber systems to highlight their dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fiber (CF), ether extract (EE), ash, nitrogen-free extract (NFE), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL). Other nutritional characteristics were estimated using the chemical compositions.Statistical analysisData was analyzed using Generalized Linear Model procedures in Minitab Statistical Software at a 5% significant level.ResultsResults showed a significantly (P < 0.05) higher DM (~918 g/kgDM), CP (~153 g/kgDM), and EE (~153 g/kgDM) in B. vulgaris leaves. O. abyssinica leaves had the maximum ash (~139 g/kgDM) while those of M. maximus had the highest carbohydrate (~709 g/kgDM) and CF (~492 g/kgDM). Compared to the grasses, the bamboo had a higher pool of DM (~910 vs. 836 g/kgDM), CP (~133 vs. 75 g/kgDM), EE (~137 vs. 82 g/kgDM), ash (~134 vs. 89 g/kgDM), hemicellulose (~79 vs. 28 g/kgDM), dry matter intake (~25 vs. 24%), digestible dry matter (~58 vs. 53%), and relative feed value (~111 vs. 105). In contrast, the grasses had higher mean ADF (~461 vs. 402 g/kgDM), cellulose (~417 vs. 397 g/kgDM), and ADL (~5 vs. 0.4 g/kgDM).ConclusionThe study suggests that bamboo leaves could have high nutritional characteristics to supplement or even replace conventional grasses and other crop residues in the diets of ruminants, especially during the dry season.

The Role of Extension Training in Enhancing Participation of Women Smallholder Goat and Chicken Farmers in The Livestock Vaccine Value Chain, Sembabule District, Uganda

This paper explores the role of extension training in enhancing women smallholder livestock farmers’ participation in and benefiting from the livestock vaccine value chain (LVVC). The emphasis was on the Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) vaccine for goats and New Castle Disease vaccine (ND) for chicken. Using the Focus Group discussions, Participatory Impact Assessment, Outcome mapping, Key Informant Interviews, Questionnaire Survey and Kirkpatrick model of change, the study assessed the impact of extension training which equipped extensionists and women farmers with knowledge, skills, attitude and practice in livestock vaccination and empowerment. The study found that extension training made a tremendous impact on the availability of knowledge and information to women farmers as well as in empowering women’s self-autonomy, improved economic status, decision making role in both farm related and family related matters, reduced Gender Based Violence cases and improved productivity in the community.

The Pattern of People's Livestock and the Sustainability Status of the Livestock Area (Peruweren) of Blang Paku and Uber-Uber in Bener Meriah Regency

This paper aims to discuss the pattern of smallholder livestock farming and the status of the sustainability of the Blang Paku and Uber-uber livestock areas (peruweren) in Bener Meriah Regency. The data collection method used in this paper is through participant observation, in-depth interviews, surveys, document studies, and literature studies. Data analysis used an ethnographic approach and the RAP-BANGKAPET approach. The results showed that the general pattern of animal husbandry practiced in the Blang Paku and Uber-Uber areas was to make fences on the shepherd's land, although there was also a model of freelance rearing in the morning and evening to be put in the cage. The overall calculation results show that the achievement of the area management sustainability index is 29.01. Such an index value is included in the Poor category and is closer to bad. The status of this area as a whole is less sustainable.

The Influence of Local Actors in the Empowerment of Smallholder Livestock Farming Communities

The success of the empowerment program in the School for Smallholder Livestock Farming Community (SPR) cannot be separated from the contribution of local actors who have a dominant role in the community. This study aims to identify the local actors who dominate the empowerment of smallholder livestock farming community programs, measures the influence index and capital ownership as well as the social actions of these actors in carrying out their roles located. This research took place in two areas, namely Cinta Damai Village, Sungai Lilin District, Musi Banyuasin Regency, South Sumatera Province and Soko Village, Temayang District, Bojonegoro Regency, East Java Province. This reasearch was carried out using a mixed-method, quantitative and qualitative approach. The results showed that there were six dominant local actors in SPR empowerment. Four of them are activists who play an active role in the SPR community, and the other two actors are village government officials. The educational background and experience of actors in different villages influence the actions and strategies in the arena of SPR empowerment. Institutional and moral capital is the highest capital used by actors in Cinta Damai Village. In contrast, moral capital and economic capital are the highest capital used by actors in Soko Village.

Livestock farmers' perception of climate change and adaptation strategies in the Gera district, Jimma zone, Oromia Regional state, southwest Ethiopia

The aim of this study is to assess livestock farmers' perception of climate change (CC)/variability and adaptation strategies in the Gera district. Rainfall and temperature were the variables taken in the CC perception study. A total of 190 smallholder livestock farmers were sampled for the survey. Primary data were collected through semi-structured questionnaire interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and meteorological data series of 2001–2020. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 was used to analyze the data. The results revealed that 79.17% of respondents perceived climate change over the past 20 years. About 84.9% and 82.9% of respondents perceived increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall over the past 20 years, respectively. Farmers' perception was consistent with meteorological data of the area, which also showed increasing trend in temperature and decreasing trend in rainfall. Farmers' perceived that anthropogenic action and natural processes, anthropogenic action, natural processes, and God's anger against human sins were the main causes of CC, in decreasing order. No statistical difference (p > 0.05) was found between AEZs regarding effects of CC except for incidence of trypanosomiasis. Decreased quality and quantity of feeds, water availability, milk production, and animal fertility, and increased calving interval, number of services per conception, incidence of animal disease, and parasite were perceived as the major impacts (indicators) of CC on livestock production and productivity in their order of importance. Diversification of mixed crop-livestock, diversification of livestock species, feed conservation, reducing herd sizes, water harvesting, provision of supplementary feeds, and forage production were the most practiced adaptation strategies. Lack of technical know-how about water harvesting, shortage of land for forage production, lack of improved forage seeds, lack of supplementary feed, poor livestock management skill, lack of feed conservation practices and poor access to market were the most important barriers to CC adaptation. It is concluded that there is a need for policy makers and livestock development stakeholders to formulate and implement intervention that promote farmers' perception and adaptation abilities to CC impacts and address the identified barriers for improving livestock productivity in the study area.

Impact of Commercial Tree Plantations on Smallholder Live-stock Farmers and Their Livelihoods in Lao PDR

We investigated how commercial tree plantations under Lao forest restoration plan toward 2035, influence socio-economic conditions of household. We also seek to calculate environmental income of rural households in Laos. The questionnaire survey was conducted at two villages (Ban Hinheup and Ban Thoulakhom) from Vientiane province (the central) and two villages (Ban Luangnamtha and Ban Viengphoukha) from Luangnamtha Province (the north). Our survey results showed that the economies of the two study villages in central Laos relied moderately on cash and subsistence value of the environment while this only contributed slightly to the other two villages in the north. Villagers around the plantation concession boundary in the plantation village tends to receive benefits from tree plantations while the richest households from Ban Thoulakhom obtained a major proportion of their total household income from rice and livestock production. Several farmers in study area select eucalypt and/or rubber species, which offer profitable and sustainable land-use choices. Our results also revealed that perception towards the effects of Eucalyptus plantation tends to differ from those towards rubber plantations. Rubber plantations in Luangnamtha Province were found to have a higher economic contribution to local livelihoods, but Eucalyptus plantations were perceived to have a less negative environmental impact and could provide more opportunity for local farmers to either inter-crop their annual crops in the plantations or obtain income from the plantation employment activities. Given the rapidly dynamic policies, executing complex policy change needs sustained effort, and the related state organisations need to be pro-actively involved in dialogue with industries and the communities to be more effective. Future policy options for sustainable planted forest development in Laos should ensure that commercial forest plantations offer the pathway for economic, environmental, and social benefits for rural communities.