Smallholder Farmers In Zimbabwe Research Articles

Factors influencing seed cotton marketing decisions by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

Economic reforms such as the liberalization of export and processing-linked marketing channels have encouraged farmers to produce more. Unfortunately, cotton production in Zimbabwe has been declining regardless of such interventions. Why is the production declining despite these interventions including the government-free inputs and supported extension services? Cotton marketing is one of the main factors that influence overall quantities of a commodity to be produced but the practices and behavior of farmers are relatively unknown and unpredictable in the cotton markets. Therefore, this study was to explore factors influencing smallholder farmers' cotton marketing decisions in three cotton-producing provinces of Zimbabwe. A representative sample of 1080 cotton farmers were randomly selected from these provinces and a double hurdle model was used to evaluate market participation and intensity guided by probit model and censored tobit model respectively. Results showed that the decision to participate in cotton marketing was exclusively influenced by experience in cotton production while the intensity of cotton marketing was exclusively influenced by household labour and access to information. Market prices did not significantly (P<0.05) influence both the participation and intensity of cotton markets. The source of inputs and affiliation to marketing associations influence both marketing decisions. It is recommended that the government of Zimbabwe should revise the existing cotton marketing policies to encourage many buyers into cotton markets. The establishment of cotton marketing hubs can increase cotton marketing participation and intensity through increased access to decentralised marketing options.

A more grounded view of ‘farmer entrepreneurship’: how Zimbabwean smallholder farmers fundamentally differ in their entrepreneurial behaviours

Purpose This paper aims to investigate the entrepreneurial behaviours exhibited by commercial smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe, focusing on their socio-economic characteristics, and considers their implication for outcomes of livelihood resilience in a resource-constrained and turbulent rural context. Design/methodology/approach The study used survey data collected from 430 smallholder farmers in Masvingo province, Zimbabwe. Using a two-step cluster analysis, the study constructed a typology of farmers based on their entrepreneurial behaviour and socio-economic characteristics. Findings The results revealed that commercial smallholder farmers are heterogeneous in terms of their entrepreneurial behaviours. Four clusters were identified: non-entrepreneurial, goal-driven, means-driven and ambidextrous. Beyond their entrepreneurial behaviours, these clusters significantly differ in the socio-economic characterises (gender, age, education levels, farm size, proximity to the market and social connection) and farm performance (seasonal sales per hectare and farm income per hectare). Research limitations/implications The typology framework relating farmers’ entrepreneurial behaviours to their socio-economic characteristics and business performance is important to tailor and therefore improve the effectiveness of farmer entrepreneurship programmes and policies. In particular, tailoring farmer entrepreneurship education is crucial to distribute land, finance and market resources in purposive ways to promote a combination of smallholder farmers’ effectual and causal behaviours at an early stage of their farm ventures. Originality/value Researchers still know little about which farmers’ behaviours are entrepreneurial and how these behaviours manifest in action during their commercial farm activities. This research leverages effectuation and causation theory to unveil previously overlooked distinctions on farmers’ entrepreneurial behaviours, thereby enhancing a more grounded understanding of farmer entrepreneurship in a resource-constrained context.

Enhancing Veterinary Services for Smallholder Farmers in Zimbabwe: A Comprehensive Literature Review

In Zimbabwe, the smallholder farming sector holds over 90% of the country's livestock, playing a vital role in the rural economy. However, low productivity and livestock offtake persist due to various challenges, primarily stemming from animal diseases. This literature review examines veterinary services provision in the smallholder sector, focusing on the Zimbabwean context. Through a desktop review of published literature, the study investigates the evolution of veterinary services for smallholder farmers, the key actors involved, and their interactions. It also explores the challenges faced by farmers in accessing veterinary services and identify the gaps in and scope of service provision with a view to identifying ways of improving service delivery. The study showed that the arrangements for provision of veterinary services to the smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe was inadequate. The findings highlight the critical need for an integrated approach to service delivery, involving state veterinary services, the private sector, and community-based animal health workers. The paper concludes by offering recommendations on specific roles of each service provider within an integrated system to enhance service provision in the smallholder sector. This research contributes to the understanding of effective veterinary services and their role in supporting agricultural growth in Zimbabwe.

Communication medium in theileriosis control: the factors that determine disease knowledge among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

Theileriosis is one of the most important tick-borne diseases that has been affecting farmers and thousands of livestock in Zimbabwe. The main government strategy to combat theileriosis is use of plunge dips with anti-tick chemicals at specified times; however, an increase in number of farmers caused a strain on government services resulting in disease outbreak. One of the key issues that have been highlighted by department of veterinary is the strain in communication and knowledge of the disease with the farmers. Hence, it is important to evaluate the communication between farmers and veterinary services and identify possible areas of strain. A field survey was conducted with 320 farmers in Mhondoro Ngezi, a district badly affected by theileriosis. Face-to-face interviews with smallholders and communal farmers were conducted between September and October 2021, and the data were analyzed using Stata 17. Communal farmers relied mainly on oral communication and had limited knowledge of theileriosis; therefore, dead cattle % was high among them. Though veterinary extension officers were the prime source of information, oral communication medium affected knowledge transferred. The results of this study recommend adoption of communication mediums that encourage retention, such as brochures and posters by veterinary extension services. The government may also partner with private players to ease pressure of increased farming population due to land reform.

Digitalisation of agriculture in Zimbabwe: Challenges and opportunities

To provide insights on the potential of digitalised agriculture in improving output exploring its challenges among the smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. Literature on the application of digital agriculture was gathered. The research from countries with same or similar Zimbabwean agricultural conditions were then selected in this review. Notably, there are disparities in complexity and level of digitalisation between the developing and developing countries. Unlike in the developing countries, digitalised agriculture is more advanced and highly applied in developed countries. In Zimbabwe specifically, application of digitalized agriculture is skewed towards the commercial farmers than the smallholder communal farmers. The application of digital agriculture e-agriculture) has gained momentum world over in recent years but still low in Zimbabwe where it is more common to the highly literate and resource endowed farming communities than poorly resourced farmers. The digital agriculture is a useful modern technology applied in agricultural production systems in enhancing precision application of resources e.g water, fertilizers, pesticides etc increasing the technical efficiency that translates into high farm outputs (both quantity and quality). Machine Learning (ML) which is a subset of Al, developed to handle various challenges faced during the formation of knowledge-based farming systems. Therefore, digitalisation of agriculture ranges from the use of simple offline programmed production systems installed into information and communications technology (ICTs) gadgets to complex algorithms run by computers. In advanced digitalisation, algorithms are applied in different agronomic practices of crops as well as in animal husbandry.

Security of tenure and access to finance by resettled smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

Security of tenure and access to finance by resettled smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

Allelopathic effects of sorghum species on weed seed germination and dry matter accumulation in different soil types

Weeds are problematic and burdensome to many smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The continued existence of allelochemicals in plants inhibit weed seed germination, plant growth and nutrient uptake. A study was carried out to assess the effects of sorghum species on weed seed germination and dry matter accumulation in different soil types at Duncanstan Farm in Featherstone, Zimbabwe. A 3x3 factorial experiment was laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with nine treatment combinations replicated four times. Soil type was the first factor with sand, loam and clay soils. Sorghum plant extracts, Sorghum arundinacea and Sorghum halepense, formed the second factor, and the control had no extract. All soil types showed significant effects p<0.05 in the reduction of germinated weeds treated with S. arundinacea and S. halepense water extracts compared to the control. There was significant decrease p<0.05 in the mean fresh and dry matter accumulation of weed seedlings in both treatments of S. arundinacea and S. halepense water extracts in all soil types. In sand soil, the mean fresh weights were 33.4g and 36.3g in S. arundinacea and S. halepense respectively as compared to the control treatment with 58.2g. Similarly, the mean dry weights were 15.4g and 14.9g. In conclusion, Sorghum arundinacea and Sorghum halepense possess allelopathic effects which can be used for effective weed management. It is recommended that sorghum species be conserved and used as bio-herbicides and in the development of synthetic herbicides.

Factors affecting livelihood strategies of smallholder tobacco and non-tobacco farmers and off-farm households benefitting from land reform in Zimbabwe

The main objective of this paper was to determine the factors that affect the livelihood strategies of resettled smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The study was conducted in Manicaland Province in Zimbabwe, and the respondents were stratified into four groups. These were smallholder farmers resettled under the A1 and A2 models, as well as tobacco and non-tobacco smallholder farmers. The two models differ in how they were implemented and supported, which might lead to them having different livelihood strategies. A total of 300 respondents were surveyed, consisting of 114 tobacco and 149 non-tobacco farmers and 24 off-farm and 13 wageearner households in Manicaland province. The study used a Multinomial Logit model to investigate the factors influencing a household’s decision to choose different livelihood strategies. In the model, the dependent variables included four livelihood strategies, while the explanatory variables included various household social-economic and institutional factors. The results obtained from the multinomial logistic regression model established that gender and land size were significant at a level of 1%, and education, household size, access to credit and access to inputs were significant at 5% in the adoption of tobacco farming, access to credit and gender were significant at a 1% level in the adoption of non-tobacco farming, while education was significant at a 10% level in adopting off-farm were found to be significant in determining the adoption of the tobacco farming in the study area up to less than 10% probability level in adopting off-farm activities. Smallholder farmers who did not adopt tobacco farming indicated that limited land size, shortage of labour and access to tobacco inputs were the major impediments to adopting tobacco farming. The government should support the efforts of smallholder farmers to increase their livelihood strategies through unveiling credit lines for farming activities. Access to inputs for smallholder farmers should be made a priority by the government through the provision and fair distribution of adequate agricultural inputs.

Investigation of the optimum planting dates for maize varieties using a hybrid approach: A case of Hwedza, Zimbabwe

Water scarcity and unreliable weather conditions frequently cause smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe to plant maize (Zea mays L.) varieties outside the optimum planting timeframe. This challenge exacts the necessity to develop sowing management options for decision support. The study's objective was to use a hybrid approach to determine the best planting windows and maize varieties. The combination will guide farmers on planting dates, dry spell probability during critical stages of the crop growth cycle and rainfall cessation. To capture farmer's perception on agroclimatic information, a systematic random sampling of 438 smallholders was carried out. An analysis of climatic data during 1949–2012 was conducted using INSTAT to identify the best planting criterion. The best combination of planting criterion and maize varieties analysis was then achieved by optimizing planting dates and maize varieties in the DSSAT environment. It was found that 56.2% of farmers grew short-season varieties, 40.2% medium-season varieties and 3.6% long-season varieties. It was also established that the number of rain days and maize yield had a strong positive relationship (p = 0.0049). No significant association was found amongst maize yield (p > 0.05), and planting date criteria, Depth (40mm in 4 days), the AREX criterion- Agricultural Research Extension (25 mm rainfall in 7 days) and the MET Criterion-Department of Meteorological Services (40 mm in 15 days). Highest yields were simulated under the combination of medium-season maize variety and the AREX and MET criteria. The range of simulated yields from 0.0 t/ha to 2.8 t/ha formed the basis for the development of an operational decision support tool (cropping calendar) with (RMSE) (0.20). The methodology can be used to select the best suitable maize varieties and a range of planting time.

Prevalence of Aflatoxin- and Fumonisin-Producing Fungi Associated with Cereal Crops Grown in Zimbabwe and Their Associated Risks in a Climate Change Scenario.

In most sub-Saharan African countries, staple cereal grains harbor many fungi and some produce mycotoxins that negatively impact health and trade. Maize and three small grain cereals (sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet) produced by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe during 2016 and 2017 were examined for fungal community structure, and total aflatoxin (AF) and fumonisin (FM) content. A total of 800 maize and 180 small grain samples were collected at harvest and during storage from four agroecological zones. Fusarium spp. dominated the fungi associated with maize. Across crops, Aspergillus flavus constituted the main Aspergillus spp. Small grain cereals were less susceptible to both AF and FM. AF (52%) and FM (89%) prevalence was higher in maize than in small grains (13–25% for AF and 0–32% for FM). Less than 2% of small grain samples exceeded the EU regulatory limit for AF (4 µg/kg), while <10% exceeded the EU regulatory limit for FM (1000 µg/kg). For maize, 28% and 54% of samples exceeded AF and FM Codex guidance limits, respectively. Higher AF contamination occurred in the drier and hotter areas while more FM occurred in the wetter year. AF exposure risk assessment revealed that small grain consumption posed low health risks (≤0.02 liver cancer cases/100,000 persons/year) while maize consumption potentially caused higher liver cancer rates of up to 9.2 cases/100,000 persons/year depending on the locality. Additionally, FM hazard quotients from maize consumption among children and adults were high in both years, but more so in a wet year than a dry year. Adoption of AF and FM management practices throughout the maize value chain coupled with policies supporting dietary diversification are needed to protect maize consumers in Zimbabwe from AF- and FM-associated health effects. The higher risk of health burden from diseases associated with elevated concentration of mycotoxins in preferred maize during climate change events can be relieved by increased consumption of small grains.

Sustainability of centralized contract farming among tobacco smallholder farmers in Makoni North District, Zimbabwe

The study explores centralized contract farming sustainability among tobacco smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. Despite studies on centralized contract farming to date, little has been theorized with...

Evaluation of Korean Cabbage Varieties for Adaptation and Yield under Tropical Zimbabwe Conditions

Cabbage (Brassica oleraceae var. Capitata L.) is one of the most important leafy vegetables grown by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe for food, nutrition, and income security. The study evaluated the adaptation of two Korean varieties/entries (‘K5’ reddish-purple and ‘K8’ white-green) under Zimbabwe’s tropical conditions compared to the industry’s standard variety ‘Fabiola’ preferred for its high yield, earliness, and tenderness. The experiment was conducted at the Scientific Industrial Research and Development Center (SIRDC) farm in a randomized complete block design with five replications. Two Korean cabbage varieties ‘K8’ (white) and ‘K5’ (red) were evaluated in comparison with ‘Fabiola’ hybrid being an industry standard preferred for its high yield, earliness, and tenderness. The actual days to maturity from transplanted seedlings ranged between 85-90 days in ‘Fabiola’, but ‘K8’ matured at 100-120 days and ‘K5’ at 120-140 days are categorized as mid-season to late maturing varieties. The ‘K8’ had bigger head weight than ‘Fabiola’ and ‘K5’ (P<0.05). Interestingly, the head weight of ‘K5’ was 2 or 3 times less compared to the both varieties. ‘K8’ had higher estimated marketable yield of 35t/ha than ‘Fabiola’ (25t/ha) and ‘K5’ (18t/ha) (P<0.05). Based on market preferences relative to head sizes and implications on health, the two Korean varieties can adapt satisfactorily to Zimbabwean and the tropical conditions.

Using principal component analysis to explore consumers' perception toward quinoa health and nutritional claims in Gweru, Zimbabwe.

Quinoa is one of the ancestral grains now considered as the “superfoods of the future” due to their characteristics as functional foods with great environmental adaptability. The Zimbabwe Resilience Building Fund has introduced quinoa in Zimbabwe to increase resilience of farming systems in light of environmental shocks. In order to improve adoption of the crop, it is important to understand the combined effects of socio‐demographic variables on consumer perceptions of the crop. However, there is limited literature on the combined effects of socio‐demographic variables on quinoa health and nutritional benefits in Zimbabwe. In this study, we used principle component analysis to identify consumers' perception about health and nutritional benefits of quinoa in Gweru Urban District, Gweru, Zimbabwe. A questionnaire was designed and applied to 200 participants. However, only 167 forms were valid for analysis. Age, education, and income level are main factors that determine consumer perceptions on health and nutritional claims. The results indicate that quinoa need to be promoted a as a crop that goes beyond food and income security by placing additional emphasis on health and nutritional aspects. This is very insightful in light of the need to improve the uptake of the crop by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. However, the use of self‐reporting survey method has received criticism for failing to get detailed information on perceptions of individuals. These findings could be handy to promote quinoa as a climate smart crop with additional health and nutritional benefits. This is one of the novel research studies exploring the motives of Zimbabwean consumers towards quinoa as a functional food crop. The work also contributes to knowledge on consumer food preferences.

Structure, composition and regeneration of miombo woodlands within harvested and unharvested areas

Production of tobacco by small holder farmers in Zimbabwe after the year 2000 land reform programme impacted woodlands due to the widespread use of fuel wood instead of coal for tobacco curing, but impacts have been rarely quantified. We assessed the effect of fuel wood harvesting for tobacco curing on structure, composition and diversity in harvested and unharvested miombo woodlands in the central watershed of Zimbabwe. Tree size class distributions provide demographic information on regeneration and recovery from disturbances. Vegetation structure and plant species composition were assessed in thirty 20 × 20 m plots in each site. Tree basal area, canopy cover and height were significantly higher in the less disturbed unharvested compared with harvested site. Species composition differed between harvested and unharvested sites, with higher diversity in the harvested compared with unharvested site. Trees had reverse-J-shaped size class distribution curves for both stem diameter and height at the harvested site and bimodal distributions with fairly large densities in larger size classes at the unharvested site. Recruitment and regeneration were higher in the harvested than unharvested site. Our findings show that harvesting fuel wood for tobacco curing has negative effects on tree structure, but not yet the diversity of the miombo woodland, however the latter will likely negatively impact tree species favoured for harvesting over the medium-long term. When species composition was compared using NMDS ordination, the harvested and unharvested plots were distinctly separated. Because of the rotational time for miombo woodlands of >25 years, continuous harvesting of the woodland may permanently keep the trees small, failing to provide sufficient wood for tobacco curing. Therefore, there is need for the consideration of alternative or supplementary sources of energy such as solar, with a zero deforestation in the production chain of tobacco in the whole miombo eco-region.

Analysis of distribution systems for supply of synthetic grain protectants to maize smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe: Implications for hermetic grain storage bag distribution

Grain storage in pesticide-free hermetic bags is a promising alternative to synthetic pesticide treatment and storage in polypropylene bags for smallholder farmers but the hermetic bags are not conveniently available to rural customers. Developing a commercial hermetic storage bag distribution chain that supplies bags to smallholder farmers is a challenge for manufacturers. We therefore examined the factors affecting the design of grain synthetic insecticide distribution channels to draw lessons for hermetic bag manufacturers to consider. Key informant interviews with insecticide manufacturers and/or distributors and agricultural merchants along the supply chain from national to grassroots level were complemented with farmer focus group discussions. The insecticide distribution channels were analyzed in terms of channel length and breath. Some of the factors that influenced the length of the insecticide distribution channel included the manufacturer's financial, human and technological resources; the value-to-volume ratio of insecticide products; and the sparse geographic concentration of smallholder farmers. The number of intermediaries in each channel depended on farmer purchase habits, product features and market factors. Given the small operational scale of local insecticide formulators, distribution was mainly through intermediaries. The shorter one-tier supermarket distribution channel primarily served urban consumers while the traditional two-tier wholesaler-retailer channel served rural customers. To penetrate the rural smallholder market segment, the longer channel that placed inventory closer to farmers will continue to be the main route for hermetic bag manufacturers. With a low value-to-volume ratio product feature, collaboration between manufacturers of hermetic bags and rural retailers will be essential. In addition, a large-package delivery approach that aggregates retail orders for a particular farming radius should be considered.

The contribution of small-scale rural irrigation schemes towards food security of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe.

Smallholder farmers across Zimbabwe have been facing a problem of food insecurity because of climate-induced droughts and lack of effective use of irrigation schemes. Rainfall patterns in the country have become more unpredictable and inconsistent with the traditional farming seasons. Faced with such challenges, many smallholder farmers in Shurugwi district in the Midlands province of Zimbabwe adopted small-scale irrigation schemes to improve food security. The principal objectives of this study were to examine the status of the irrigation schemes in the district; analyse the need to rehabilitate small-scale irrigation schemes; assess the initiatives towards the revival of irrigation schemes; establish the benefits that can accrue to smallholder farmers from small-scale irrigation schemes and discuss challenges faced by smallholder farmers in the running of small-scale irrigation schemes in rural areas. This qualitative study employed literature and interviews to obtain data from 40 purposively selected participants. The direct observation method was used to compliment the interviews. The findings of the study were that small-scale rural irrigation schemes have the capacity to significantly transform the lives of rural farmers through earning increased reliable income from farming if institutional and capacity issues of the farmers are addressed. Furthermore, the study found that small-scale irrigation schemes can also be a panacea to food security challenges mainly faced by rural households. As such, the article concluded that irrigation schemes are fortress and antidote to the effects of climate change. The study calls for capacity promotion on technical skills for the farmers, the establishment of many new irrigation schemes and the rehabilitation of the existing small-scale irrigation schemes in the country as well as calling on the farmers to adopt climate-smart irrigation.

Commercialization and its determinants among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. A case of Shamva District, Mashonaland Central Province

Empirical evidence supports the attainment of economic growth through commercialization of agricultural production. However, there are still high levels of subsistence farming in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to determine commercialization levels of smallholder farmers and the factors affecting their decisions to commercialize, with a view to identifying strategies for advancing commercialization. The study was carried out in Shamva District of Zimbabwe and a randomly selected sample of 281 farmers was used. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Tobit regression model. The commercialization level was captured by the household commercialization index which was calculated as the ratio of value of marketed output to the value of crops produced. The following variables positively influenced commercialization: gender of household head, access to draft power, access to extension, access to markets, access to finance and number of crops. Age of household head, number of cattle, off-farm income and communal land holding were negatively associated with commercialization levels. Smallholder farmers should be motivated to grow more cash generating crops so as to increase their income. Subsistence farmers, if given adequate financial and extension support, are likely to commercialize.

Building adaptive capacity: Reducing the climate vulnerability of smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe

AbstractClimate change is affecting agricultural production, particularly in Africa, where agriculture forms the backbone of rural economies. Smallholder farmers in rural areas are vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to their marginalised location, low levels of technology, and reliance on rain‐fed agriculture. This conceptual paper finds that adaptation is cross cutting in nature and complex. Hence, it requires an approach that incorporates both policy and investment issues into its planning. This research not only contributes to literature on adaptation strategies but will also provide relevant insight for capacity building on smallholder farmers to avert the ongoing and future climate crisis. Furthermore, it contributes to hitherto limited work on understanding how adaptive capacity is shaped and be sustainable in Zimbabwe. This paper recommends that the government and private sector should disseminate technology that helps farmers adapt to climate change and access to irrigation technology must be a priority.

Impact of conservation agriculture on maize yield and food security: evidence from smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe.

Conservation agriculture is promoted as a green technology that enhances the productivity and food security of farmers. However, there is limited evidence from practising farmers regarding these expected outcomes. This study evaluates the impact of conservation agriculture on the productivity of maize and food security outcomes among smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. The propensity scorematching approach was used to estimate the impact. The data is based on a 2013 survey of 488 households. Conservation agriculture, largely defined by the use of planting basins, had a positive and significant (p < 0.05) impact on maize grain yield (ATT = 473 kgha-1), with the magnitude more pronounced among female-headed households (ATT = 515.53 kgha-1). The increased grain production extended the households’ grain self-provision period by 1.14 months for the pooled sample, and by a slightly longer period of 2.89 months for the female-headed sample. The study concludes that conservation agriculture increases maize productivity and grain supply to households, particularly for female-headed households.

Small grains “resistance”? Making sense of Zimbabwean smallholder farmers’ cropping choices and patterns within a climate change context

This paper aims to understand why smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe are “resisting” to adopt small grains as a strategy for adapting to the negative effects of climate change. The uptake of small gra...