Small Flock Size Research Articles

Livestock farming sustainability and forage production in volcanic-hazard prone areas of Indonesia’s active volcano

Volcanic eruptions have varied and complex impacts on small-scale livestock farming located in volcanic hazard-prone areas due to diverse stock, rearing, and feeding practices. The study was aimed to clarify the critical factors for designing forage recovery and sustainable livestock production in highrisk-prone areas of active volcanic mountains. A total of seventy-five ruminant livestock farmers located in the eruption-impacted areas of five active volcanoes were surveyed on flock size, rearing, and feeding practices. They were interviewed about their experiences of the eruption's impact on the animals, forage feed, and livestock mitigation regarding survival efforts. Forage plants and soil samples were collected to analyze dry matter and crude nutrient composition and estimate the botanical composition, biomass production, and carrying capacity. Results showed that there were five species of ruminant animals reared in small flock size (< 7 heads/farm): beef cattle, buffalo, horses, goat, and sheep. Beef cattle and goats were the most popular farm animals raised in different breeds, rearing, and feeding systems. The volcanic eruption caused animal loss and health problems due to exposure to volcanic materials, forage damages, and animal mitigation constraints, resulting in flock size decrease and economic loss. The impact of the eruption on farm animals and forage plants varied among the volcanoes due to diverse eruptive characteristics, stock breed, rearing, and feeding practices. Livestock farming recovery post-eruption depended largely on the survival flock and the regrowth of forage plants. In conclusion, sustainable beef cattle farming in volcanic hazard-prone areas might be realized by effective livestock mitigation efforts, selecting appropriate types of animals and rearing/feeding systems based on agroecological conditions, and improving forage capacity and survival rate during and posteruption.

Characterisation and approaches to the conservation of the Nigerian local duck population: A Review

Abstract Research, development, and breeding of ducks in Nigeria are on the rise and continuous breeding of ducks needs basic information on their production environment, genetic background, and diversity. Nigerian local ducks (NLD) have been phenotypically characterised based on morphological characteristics which have provided a reasonable representation of their genetic difference. Morphological and morphometric variations exist among indigenous ducks of Nigeria and mottled plumage colour is preponderant. Low genetic diversity exists among Nigerian duck populations implying that ducks are in close genetic relationships irrespective of distinctive and varying phenotypic, biochemical, and physiological characteristics, whereas the phylogenetic tree revealed clustered relationships. Large-scale duck farming is uncommon; rather, ducks are kept as a pastime business. The scavenging feeding system is majorly practiced among small flock sizes which are highly predominant. NLDs lay between 100 and 125 eggs yearly when reared under an intensive system of management and also have a high hatching rate of above 70% even though high environmental temperature affects their reproductive performance. There are no organised duck markets in Nigeria. Duck eggs are rarely consumed or sold; rather they are majorly used for breeding purposes. Myths, poor funding, lack of standard laboratories, and lack of skilled workforce are among the factors affecting the development and conservation of indigenous ducks in Nigeria. Introducing improved breeds of duck and establishing conservation programmes will help promote greater duck production and conservation. Duck business is a profitable but seasonal business and can efficiently bridge the noticed protein gap in rural communities.

Duck production in India-A review

In India, the contribution of ducks for egg and meat production is next to chicken. There are many advantagesof duck production over chicken. The important available ducks in the country are few exotic breeds and locallyavailable indigenous ducks. Ducks can be reared under intensive, semi-intensive and extensive rearing system.However, in India, ducks are mostly reared in small flock size as subsidiary source of income. The major duck basedintegrated farming system are duck-fish, duck-rice and duck-rice-fish integrated farming system. Feed is the majorfactor in livestock and poultry production system as it accounts about 70-75% of the total cost of production. Tominimize the cost of production, many locally available alternate or unconventional feed ingredients, viz. azolla,cassava, broken rice are used for feeding of ducks. The constraints of duck farming are mainly the unavailability ofsuitable germplasm, scarcity in natural feed resources, drying of natural water bodies, difficulty in the availabilityof vaccines, poor marketing facilities, etc. In India, there is ample scope for duck production to meet egg and meatdemand of the country. Suitable duck breeds or varieties need to be developed for rural backyard duck farming.Comprehensive feeding packages along with scientific management practices for different types of ducks should beformulated for economic production of duck eggs and meat. There is a need for establishment of hatcheries and other infrastructures in rural areas to promote duck farming for sustainable livelihood of the people.

Welfare issues and potential solutions for laying hens in free range and organic production systems: A review based on literature and interviews.

In free-range and organic production systems, hens can make choices according to their needs and desires, which is in accordance with welfare definitions. Nonetheless, health and behavioral problems are also encountered in these systems. The aim of this article was to identify welfare challenges observed in these production systems in the EU and the most promising solutions to overcome these challenges. It is based on a review of published literature and research projects complemented by interviews with experts. We selected EU specific information for welfare problems, however, the selected literature regarding solutions is global. Free range use may increase the risk of infection by some bacteria, viruses and parasites. Preventive methods include avoiding contamination thanks to biosecurity measures and strengthening animals' natural defenses against these diseases which can be based on nutritional means with new diet components such as insect-derived products, probiotics and prebiotics. Phytotherapy and aromatherapy can be used as preventive and curative medicine and vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics and pesticides. Bone quality in pullets and hens prevents keel deviations and is favored by exercise in the outdoor range. Free range use also lead to higher exposure to variable weather conditions and predators, therefore shadow, fences and guard animals can be used to prevent heat stress and predation respectively. Granting a free range provides opportunities for the expression of many behaviors and yet many hens usually stay close to the house. Providing the birds with trees, shelters or attractive plants can increase range use. Small flock sizes, early experiences of enrichment and personality traits have also been found to enhance range use. Severe feather pecking can occur in free range production systems, although flocks using the outdoor area have better plumage than indoors. While many prevention strategies are facilitated in free range systems, the influence of genetics, prenatal and nutritional factors in free range hens still need to be investigated. This review provides information about practices that have been tested or still need to be explored and this information can be used by stakeholders and researchers to help them evaluate the applicability of these solutions for welfare improvement.

Potential of Livestock Production Systems: Explaining Employability and Milk Productivity Through Multivariate Typology

A study was conducted in four different agro-climatic zones of Maharashtra state in India. The typology was developed with an aim to identify livestock production system, employment generation, and milk productivity oflivestock production system. Multivariate statistical technique, i.e. Cluster analysis (CA) was used to classify groupsof farm households with similar farm characteristics into four homogenous clusters, viz. households possessingsmall landholding, a larger high yielding dairy stock with small goat flock size (37.5%); small landholding with asmall stock of high yielding dairy animal and small goat flock size (39%); large landholding with large high yieldingdairy stock and small flock size (13.5%); small landholding with small high yielding dairy stock and large flock size(10%). It was observed that 47.5% of the respondents had dairy and 31.3% had a goat production system. The totalman-days generated for family labour were high (165.87) for cluster 2 households while, for hired labour, man-daysgenerated were high for cluster 4 households. Milk yield index was significantly high for cluster 3 and cluster 1households. Spearman correlation revealed that independent variables, viz. total SAU, flock size, income from dairyand goat production system positively correlated with milk productivity, employment generation (man-days) andgross annual income. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the integration of dairy and goat farming along with technology adoption significantly influenced the employment generation of small landholders.

Comparison of Organic and Conventional Food and Food Production

Comparison of Organic and Conventional Food and Food Production

Socio-ecological correlates of neophobia in corvids

Behavioral responses to novelty, including fear and subsequent avoidance of novel stimuli, i.e., neophobia, determine how animals interact with their environment. Neophobia aids in navigating risk and impacts on adaptability and survival. There is variation within and between individuals and species; however, lack of large-scale, comparative studies critically limits investigation of the socio-ecological drivers of neophobia. In this study, we tested responses to novel objects and food (alongside familiar food) versus a baseline (familiar food alone) in 10 corvid species (241 subjects) across 10 labs worldwide. There were species differences in the latency to touch familiar food in the novel object and novel food conditions relative to the baseline. Four of seven socio-ecological factors influenced object neophobia: (1) use of urban habitat (versus not), (2) territorial pair versus family group sociality, (3) large versus small maximum flock size, and (4) moderate versus specialized caching (whereas range, hunting live animals, and genus did not), while only maximum flock size influenced food neophobia. We found that, overall, individuals were temporally and contextually repeatable (i.e., consistent) in their novelty responses in all conditions, indicating neophobia is a stable behavioral trait. With this study, we have established a network of corvid researchers, demonstrating potential for further collaboration to explore the evolution of cognition in corvids and other bird species. These novel findings enable us, for the first time in corvids, to identify the socio-ecological correlates of neophobia and grant insight into specific elements that drive higher neophobic responses in this avian family group. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Potential risk factors of avian influenza virus infection in asymptomatic commercial chicken flocks in selected areas of Bangladesh during 2019.

Objective:Avian influenza is a zoonotic disease with a pandemic potential that can infect avian and mammalian species, including humans. Studies aimed at investigating avian influenza virus (AIV) status in asymptomatic chickens and their shedding are uncommon in Bangladesh. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine the distribution of AIV subtypes in asymptomatic commercial chicken flocks and to identify the possible risk factors associated with this infection in two selected sub-districts of Bangladesh.Materials and Methods:A total of 582 oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 23 chicken farms during 2019 and evaluated for the presence of AIV and its subtypes by real-time reverse transcription PCR assays. Risk factors associated with AIV infection were analyzed from questionnaire data.Results:Overall, AIV prevalence was 7.73% (n = 45) with 7.39% and 7.92% in Dhamrai and Gazipur Sadar sub-districts, respectively. In AIV-positive samples, the prevalence of A/H5N1, A/H5N2, A/H9N1, and A/H9N2 was 31.11%, 28.89%, 6.67%, and 8.89%, respectively. None of the samples were positive for N6 and N8. The odds ratio (OR) of AIV infection was 1.15 in broiler versus layer and 2 in Sonali versus layer chickens. The OR was 1.95 for medium versus small, 2.6 for large versus small flock size, 1.5 for moderate versus good biosecurity, and 2.92 for poor versus good biosecurity practicing farms.Conclusion:The results demonstrated that A/H5N1, A/H5N2, A/H9N1, and A/H9N2 are circulating in asymptomatic chickens of selected areas. Strict farm biosecurity practices and avoiding higher flock density are recommended to prevent AIV spread in the study.

Review on the status of goat production, marketing, challenges and opportunities in Namibia.

This paper presents the current status of goat production and marketing in Namibia and its challenges and opportunities. Livestock data and reports from the Directorate of Veterinary Services, Meat Board of Namibia and Namibia Statistics Agency were analysed to establish the current status in goat production and marketing. Namibia has 1.9million goats of which 54% of the total number is found in the northern communal areas. In the commercial farming sector, Boer goat is the main established breed for meat production, while in northern communal areas, the local indigenous goats are common. Goats are reared under an extensive production system and fully dependent on rangelands. Marketing of goats in the formal market is regulated by the board of the red meat industry, whereas there is no regulated marketing in the informal market. The main purpose of goats farming in communal areas is rather for home consumption; thus, trading becomes secondary when a need for emergency income arises. In the commercial sector, goats are mainly marketed on hoof to the lucrative South African market. The major challenges for goat production are recurrent drought, diseases and parasites, predators and theft and poor management. Organized marketing in communal areas and lack of marketing infrastructure are impeded by small flock sizes that limit the numbers that can be marketed. Consumers' health consciousness provides an opportunity to increase goat production through increased demand for goat meat and milk. Market incentives such as attractive prices, market infrastructure, value addition and support policies for local farmers are imperative to improve goat production and marketing.

English

To document current rabbit management practices in Kiambu County, a survey using structured questionnaire was undertaken in 45 farms identified using snow ball sampling technique. Data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics. Findings revealed that the majority of the respondents (57.8%) kept more than 10 does while the most prevalent breed was New Zealand White (82.2%). The main purpose of keeping rabbits for the majority (54%) of the farmers was income generation. Rabbit keepers depended on locally available feed resources with the majority (82.2%) feeding a mixture of forages and concentrate. The majority of respondents (71.1%) weaned the kits at 8 weeks of age while does were rebred at 9 weeks after kindling on 68.9% of the farms. Treatment of sick rabbits was done majorly by the farmers themselves (60.5%). Constraints identified included high cost of feeds (88.9%), diseases (84.4%) and lack of markets for rabbits and rabbit products (71.1%). This study concluded that rabbit farming in Kiambu County is practiced on small scale characterized by limited resource allocation and small flock sizes which may not support a sustainable off-take rate to meet the intended purpose of income generation. Key words: Rabbits, feed resources, health, Kenya.

Community based small ruminant breeding programs in Ethiopia: Progress and challenges

Abstract In Ethiopia, small ruminant breeding programs has been shifted from central nucleus scheme to community based breeding programs considering the past genetic improvement approaches and their suitability to the Ethiopia's production system. One-tier community-based breeding program (CBBP) is currently active breeding strategy implementing with farmers having a common interest to improve and share their genetic resources. Reviewing the progressive results and faced obstacles with their possible solutions is crucial to the breeding plan for its strengthening and adoption in non-participantareas/breeds and other commodities. Community based breeding program has been operated successfully in smallholder goat/sheep producers in mixed crop livestock production system. However, in pastoral and agro-pastoral communities and farmers that have larger flock sizes even in the mixed production system are resisted because of restricted freedom in flock movement, fear of losing independency in decision making and lack of interest in mixing their own flock with others. Moreover, the progressive results of CBBP’s are significantly different among sites due to the differences in commitment and relationship among the CBBP implementers as well as the regional governmental services. Expanding of the CBBP’s in the existing sites as well as in new sites/breeds is still in the gradual form. Small flock sizes, uncontrolled mating system, difficulty of pedigree and performance recording, year round lambing/kidding pattern, keeping higher proportion of breeding males than the recommended male to female ratio, poor institutional support, weak organization of farmers’, incompatible cooperative society proclamation to the CBBP, shortage of incentives to participant farmers are identified as main challenges of the CBBP. Thus, strengthening and careful implementation of CBBP bylaws, reconsidering the cooperative society proclamation and government services is crucial to improve productivity of small ruminant and thereby the profits of farmers in the CBBP’s. Applying restricted breeding season may create great opportunity to increase availability of candidate breeding ram/buck and to eliminate correction factor for kid/lamb season of birth. Optimizing the number of CBBP’s per targeted breed is essential to obtain better genetic gain via efficient utilization of skilled manpower that engage in the CBBP’s rather than gradual increments of CBBP’s. Capacitating the existing reproductive technologies like AI and estrus synchronization (ES) in the CBBP is essential foraccelerate genetic gain, to record accurate pedigree information, and to disseminate the superior gene into non participant farmers. Designing and implementing compatible breeding strategy that initiate individual farmers with larger flock size in the pastoral, agro-pastoral as well as in the mixed production systems may achieve higher genetic gain, profit and sustainability of the proramme.

A review of dystocia in sheep

Abstract This review aims to describe the nutritional and non-nutritional factors that may affect parturition and dystocia in sheep. Dystocia is associated with fetopelvic disproportion, uterine inertia, failure of the cervix to fully dilate, malpresentation and disease or congenital defects in lambs. Dystocia can result in lambs that are born dead, or lambs that survive parturition but sustain birth injury including central nervous system damage. Dystocia risk is increased with high or low birthweight lambs, high (fat) or low liveweight ewes, and small first parity ewes. Other factors implicated include low muscle glycogen, pregnancy toxaemia, mineral imbalance causing hypocalcaemia, and a lack of antioxidant nutrients. Addressing these risks requires differential nutritional management for single and multiple bearing ewes. There is also evidence for stress and environmentally related dystocia. The stress related hormones cortisol, adrenaline and ACTH play a major role in the initiation and control of parturition in the sheep indicating a need for adequate supervision during lambing, provision of adequate feed and shelter at the lambing site, and small flock size to reduce physical and environmental stress. Hormonal control of parturition can be further disrupted by xenoestrogens or phytoestrogens in clovers and medics. Oestrogenic plants are still widely grown in mixed pastures but should be not be grazed by pregnant ewes. There is clearly a genetic component to dystocia. This is partly explained by incompatibility in physical size and dimensions of the ram, ewe and lamb. A rapid reduction in dystocia through direct genetic selection is problematic with low heritability of dystocia and some of its indicator traits such as lambing ease. This review provides broad interpretation of the literature, but conclusions are not definitive with widespread inconsistency in reported results. Further research is required to investigate dystocia under commercial production conditions, and this should be complemented by focussed studies under controlled conditions. Priorities include defining the fitness of the ewe to lamb, the role of stress and environment on parturition and the use of indicator traits to select for ease of birth.

Profitability of dairy and goat production system: A multivariate typology of farm households

Using households' data from four different agro-climatic zones of Maharashtra, a typology was developed with an aim to identify factors influencing the profitability of dairy and goat production system. Multivariate statistical techniques, i.e. Cluster analysis (CA) were used to classify the groups of farm households with similar farm characteristics into four homogenous clusters, (1) households possessing small landholding, a larger high yielding dairy stock with small goat flock size, (2) households having small landholding with a small stock of high yielding dairy animal and small goat flock size, (3) households having large landholding with large high yielding dairy stock and small flock size, (4) households possessing small landholding with small high yielding dairy stock and large flock size. The households with small high yielding dairy stock and large flock size were most profitable than others because of scale of economies, while households with larger high yielding dairy stock and small flock size were least profitable, implying a need for more integration of Dairy+Goat unit to augment profitability. Price of milk, total SAU and flock size has been identified as the main factors influencing profitability. This implies that increase in number of SAU, flock size and price of milk can augment profitability in dairy and goat production system.

Socio-Economic Characteristics and Composition of Sheep and Goat Farming under Extensive System of Rearing

Sheep and goat play an important role in Indian economy and source of livelihood and employment to millions of rural households. Sheep and goats in India are mostly maintained on natural vegetation on common grazing lands, wastelands and uncultivated (fallow) lands, stubbles of cultivated crops and top feeds (tree loppings). Rarely they are kept on grain, cultivated fodder or crop residue. Sheep and goat rearing is the backbone of the economy of small and landless farmers in India. The study was carried out in Tumakuru, Chitradurga, Belagavi and Kalaburagi districts of Karnataka. The results of the study revealed that majority of the sheep and goat farmers belonged to age group of above 40 years and are illiterate (50-52%). The family size of sheep and goat rearing households have medium size with 4-6 members. The maximum number of farmers were having income of less than `1 lakh per annum, who belonged to backward class, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe. The total number of sheep per household were 25, 67 and 27 under small, medium and large herd size with an overall average of 71 sheep per farm. Similarly, about 17, 29 and 43 goats were found in small, medium and large flock size of goat with an average of 30 goats per flock. Majority of the farmers were having kaccha type of shed for rearing sheep (41.66%) and goat (80%).

English

The aim of present study was to assess the feed intake and feeding management practices of tribal farmers in Rajasthan. A total of 120 tribal goat farmers were selected from 12 villages from 6 blocks in 3 tribal dominated districts viz., Banswara, Dungarpur and Udaipur. Ten farmers from each village were selected purposively based on the number of goats. The selected goat farmers were grouped into three categories based on flock size as small ( 50 goats, N = 24). The data on feed intake and feeding management practices were recorded on-field. A half of goat farmers (51.57 %) were adopting partial grazing followed by complete grazing (48.33%) and none of the selected farmers was practicing complete stall feeding. About two-thirds of farmer (75%) sent their goats for grazing for more than 5 hours daily and the remaining 25 per cent farmer sent their animals for grazing for less than 5 hours. The proportion of goat farmers who sent their animals for more than 5 hours was 76.67, 66.67 and 83.33 per cent among small, medium and large farmers respectively. Most of goat farmers (77.5%) were feeding colostrum after the birth of the kids whereas some of the farmers (22.5%) were not feeding colostrums at all to kids at all due to the myth of spread of diseases. About a half of the farmers (49.17 %) offered grasses, fodders (berseem, lucerne, bajra, jowar and oats) followed by 34.16 per cent goat farmers feeding tree leaves (ber, neem, babool, khejri) and 16.67 per cent farmers were feeding weeds and grass (stylo, cenchrus spp., crop weeds) and about the same number of farmers (16.66 %) in small, medium and large flock size practiced feeding weeds and grass (stylo, cenchrus spp., crop weeds). It was observed that overall average amount of green fodder offered to milking goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and breeding buck was 1.33 ± 0.07, 0.85 ± 0.07, 0.45±0.03, 0.37±0.02 and 1.71±0.10 kg/day respectively. The average amount of green fodder offered daily was significantly (p<0.05) higher in case of small farmers as compared to medium and large goat farmers in case of milking as well as dry goats and significantly higher in case of breeding bucks in case of large farmers as compared to other categories of farmers. The overall available dry fodders fed to milking goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and breeding buck was 0.95±0.67, 0.93±0.07, 0.87±0.06, 0.37±0.02 and 1.72±0.11 kg/day respectively. Being significantly (p<0.05) higher in small farmers followed by medium and large goat farmers. Overall average amount of concentrate mixture offered to milking/pregnant goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and breeding buck was 210.09±14.26, 85.37±6.84, 86.76±5.83, 85.65±5.86 and 246.11±16.89 g/day respectively. Being significantly (p<0.05) higher in small farmers followed by medium and large farmers among milking goats and breeding bucks. A sizable majority of farmers (56 %) were offering fattening ration to their male kids for their higher body weight gain so that they attain early market weight and on an overall average 255.79±7923.12 g of concentrate mixture per buck/day was fed as fattening ration. The overall total DM intake through stall feeding in case of milking goats, dry, goatlings, kids and breeding bucks was 1.16, 0.90, 1.01, 0.52 and 1.38 kg respectively. The total DM intake in different categories of goats was similar among the three flock size categories. It was concluded that feeding management practices were mostly traditional without much regard to scientific recommendations. However, these management practices in general were better in case of small farmers as compared to medium and large farmers.

Disadvantaged nomadic tribes of Jammu and Kashmir in the frame of livelihood security through animal rearing

This study was conducted to examine various disadvantages associated with livelihood of nomadic tribes and role of animal rearing in their upliftment in Jammu and Kashmir. It was found that majority of nomadic families belonged to very small flock size category and the number declined towards large flock size category. The results revealed that nomadic families took up one of the combinations of economic activities available to them, though animal domestication has been their dominant livelihood option. The estimates of linear function indicated land holding size, literacy, income from other sources and mortality as the significant determinants of livestock possession. The nomadic tribes experienced various kinds of disadvantages and among them mortality of animals was more severe and was observed maximum in large flock size category. The government spending under sub-tribal plans for the development of this section of society has received a setback in recent years. The findings of the study emphasized upon concerted efforts for redressal of the problems and sustainable upliftment of nomadic tribes.

Housing and Management System Practiced by Tribal Farmers in Rajasthan

The aim of the study was to assess the floor, feeding and watering space(s) and other housing management practice of goats followed by farmers in Rajasthan. A total of 120 tribal goat farmers were selected from 12 villages from 6 blocks in 3 tribal dominated districts viz., Banswara, Dungarpur and Udaipur. Ten farmers from each village were selected purposively based on the number of goats. The selected goat farmers were grouped into three categories based on flock size as small (&lt;25 goats, N= 60), medium (26-50 goats, N = 36) and large (&gt;50 goats, N = 24). The floor space and other housing practices at the farmer’s flocks were recorded in-situ. The average flock size for small, medium and large categories of the farmer was 22.63± 0.210, 33.72± 1.05 and 58.54 ±1.28 respectively. The overall proportion of milking goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and bucks were 12.52 ± 0.31 (32.63%), 8.62 ± 0.30 (22.50%), 6.64 ± 0.27 (17.33%), 9.52 ± 0.29 (24.85%) and 0.79 ± 0.06 respectively. Across flock size categories most of the large farmers and a sizable majority of medium and small farmers (75, 66.67 and 60 per cent respectively) housed their goat in one shed, whereas rest of the farmers in all three categories housed their goats in different sheds. It was observed that a huge majority of farmers (82.50%) did not have separate managers for the feeding of goats. The available managers were made of either mud (11.6%) or cement concrete (5.8%). The roof in case of a large majority of farmers across flock size categories was made of thatch (61.67%) followed by iron sheet (21.66%) and asbestos sheets (16.67%). There was no major variation in the type of roofing material among the three flock size categories of goat farmers. The average floor space available for milking goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and breeding bucks were 1.68 ± 0.02, 1.58± 0.06, 0.97± 0.07, 0.50± 0.05 and 2.79± 0.39 sq meter respectively. The average floor space was significant (p&lt;0.05) higher in small flock size category of farmers followed by medium and large farmers among milking goats, dry goats and goatlings. Overall floor space available for milking goats, dry goats, goatlings, kids and breeding bucks were 1.68 ± 0.02, 1.58± 0.06, 0.97± 0.07, 0.50± 0.05 and 2.79± 0.39 respectively. It was concluded that housing practices were mostly traditional without much regard to scientific recommendations. However, these management practices, in general, were better in the case of small farmers as compared to medium and large farmers.

A Study on Annual Expenditure and Income from Goat Farming in Kerala

A study on goat farmers from three districts of Kerala viz., Kannur, Kozhikode and Malappuram districts was carried out to study the annual expenditure and income from goat farming under field condition in Northern Kerala. Study revealed that small flock size (16-45) got the highest net return per goat per annum. The net return worked out to be Rs. 1748, 2374, 2960, 2258 and 1602 per goat /annum, respectively. The net profit (per goat/annum) increases and reaches a maximum point and again decreases with the increase of flock sizes due to inadequate nutrition and management practices by larger goat keepers. B:C ratio also showed a similar pattern of change with flock size. Selling of goats was the major source of income followed by milk, manures and urine. In the present study, shrinking of grazing resources, lack of good quality breeding stocks improper management practices, high and labour cost were found to be the major constraints in making the goat farming more remunerative. Therefore, rearing of goat cannot sustain only on grazing resources and cut fodder and needs to switch over to systematic commercial goat farming systems via., semi-intensive / intensive system of management. Recurring cost need to be curtailed by adopting mechanization and modernization especially in large farms and also cultivating fodder and formulating and preparing concentrate in the farm itself.

Factors influencing animal-source food consumption in Timor-Leste

Poor dietary quality is an underlying contributor to the high rates of maternal and child undernutrition in Timor-Leste. The majority of households own livestock: however, the consumption of domestic animal-source food (ASF) is low, and there are few reports of the utilisation of non-domesticated species. This mixed-methods study was conducted in three villages from mid-2015 to mid-2017. Two hundred and three households with children under 24 months were enrolled in the quantitative study of maternal and child dietary diversity. To explore factors affecting household ASF consumption, 12 key informants were recruited for in-depth interviews and 312 participants, mostly mothers and fathers of young children, for focus group discussions. Participants expressed a desire to consume more ASF. Barriers to ASF consumption include having low income or limited income streams, high levels of small livestock morbidity and mortality leading to small or unstable flock or herd sizes, reserving livestock for sale and ceremonies, and living far from forested areas or where hunting is not allowed. Factors that enable greater ASF consumption include villages being located near forested areas with wild animal populations, those that observe a large number of ceremonies of long duration, households with a greater number of small livestock, and where women are able to make autonomous decisions about livestock assets. Findings suggest that policies and programs designed to achieve sustainable improvements in household nutrition would include a focus on women and improving the health and production of small livestock species frequently utilised by households.

Estimation of Breeding Values and Genetic Trend of Production Traits in Munjal Sheep

Munjal is a new promising breed of sheep and is popular among farmers for its big size and faster growth rate. The data pertaining to the production traits of 462 Munjal sheep sired of 27 rams were used to evaluate the sire by estimating the breeding value using Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP) method. The average breeding value of Munjal sires for Birth weight (BW), Weaning weight (WW), Six month body weight (SMW), One year body weight (YW) and Greasy fleece weight (GFW) were estimated as 4.15, 15.57, 21, 26.54 and 1.83 Kg, respectively. After estimation of breeding values, the sires were ranked as per their genetic merit. The product moment correlations between sire’s estimated breeding values among production traits were low to high ranging from 0.01 to 0.80. The rank correlations of BW with WW, SMW, YW and GFW were low and positive. The rank correlations of WW with SMW and YW were high, positive and significant. High and positive estimates indicate that there is high degree of similarity between ranking of WW with SMW and YW. The rank correlation of SMW with YW was high, positive and significant and indicated that there is high degree of similarity between rankings of SMW with YW. Genetic trends for BW, WW, SMW, YW and GFW were estimated by regressing breeding values of traits on year of the birth of the animals and were obtained as -0.09, -0.25, -0.51, -0.67 and -0.01 kg/ year, respectively. Phenotypic trend for BW, WW, SMW, YW and GFW were estimated by phenotypic value of the traits on year of the birth of the animals were obtained as 0.08, -0.33, -0.44, -0.59 and -0.04 Kg/year, respectively. Genetic trend obtained in the present study were in negative direction which might be due to inbreeding because of small flock size.