Small Arms Firing Range Research Articles

Video Exposure Monitoring and Position Tracking for Evaluating Particulate and Gas Exposures in a Fully Enclosed Small Arms Firing Range.

The exposure environment in small arms firing ranges is dynamic since ventilation conditions vary in space and time and instructors continuously move around throughout the range. Understanding the impact of engineering controls and instructor behavior on the levels of particulates and gases in the breathing zone is required for providing recommendations to mitigate exposure. In this study, video exposure monitoring (VEM) and position tracking technologies were used in conjunction with real-time measurements of ultrafine particle (UFP) and carbon monoxide (CO) exposures in the breathing zone of instructors in an enclosed small arms firing range. VEM was completed using Enhanced Video Analysis of Dust Exposure 2.1 developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. With this program, video recordings of Combat Arms instructor activity were synced with exposure data collected in real-time during small arms training. Position tracking was completed using a system by Pozyx, which uses ultra-wideband (UWB) technology. Position tracking data was aligned with real-time sensor data via time-synchronization. VEM identified that the largest peaks in UFP and CO concentrations generally occurred when instructors were close to the firing line assisting shooters during live fire and when instructors were located near the center of the range near the back wall where the air supplies transition between the Left-Hand-Side (LHS) and Right-Hand-Side (RHS). The UWB position tracking results agreed with the VEM results, confirming that peak exposures occurred when firing range instructors were near the center of the range close to the back wall where the LHS and RHS air supplies transition. Without these exposure visualization technologies, this observation could not have been made. Thus, exposure visualization is a valuable tool to identify gaps in exposure assessment, although future technologies should focus on automation to expedite analysis.

Numerical investigation of ventilation efficiency in a Combat Arms training facility using computational fluid dynamics modelling

Firing ranges critically depend on ventilation systems to minimize the exposure of personnel to ammunition refuse. A numerical analysis utilizing a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was used to simulate the ventilation system and predict airflow patterns within a 122-foot long, military firing range housing 21 firing stalls. The intent for this model was to identify back circulation causing firing emissions to entrain in occupied areas. Measured values at several locations within the facility were used for either input values in the model or for validation of the model solution. The analysis evaluated massless particles released at three heights to correspond with standing, kneeling, and prone firing positions. Additional predictions were completed using the recommended technical guidance for ventilation of small arms firing ranges to compare against flow dynamics of the current system. The results revealed particles circulating back behind the shooter and into the personnel occupied area. Lower supply air velocities correspond to more uniform flow and successful movement of particles downrange in the small arms firing range under investigation. The ventilation air velocity at the firing line recommended by the design guide was not achieved consistently despite the supply air velocity being set to design guide values. Overall, the results demonstrated that CFD models are useful aides for optimizing supply air velocities in current firing range facilities and for evaluating and developing design standards that provide the proper ventilation required for the health and safety of building occupants.

Military and police small arms firing range noise assessments

Firing ranges are by their nature sources of very loud noise that can damage the hearing of on-site shooters and observers while also potentially causing a noise disturbance off-site. Small arms firing ranges are typically indoor ranges when located in urban or suburban settings, but when located in rural settings, they are typically outdoor ranges designed with varying types and degrees of noise abatement or no noise abatement at all, depending on the setting. Public firing ranges can be busy and in continuous use under good lighting and favorable weather conditions. Often there are wait times. Military and police (M&P) firing ranges are typically active under scheduled usage times. Both M&P ranges host a variety of small arms, from fully automatic and semi-automatic weapons, to bolt-action sniper rifles and large caliber side arms, all of which are very loud. It is often mandatory for M&P personnel to undergo shooting practice on a regular basis and with some assigned personnel having certification or qualification performance requirements. Several examples of military and police firing ranges, with their issues, similarities and differences, are discussed and personnel and community noise abatement measures are identified for these indoor and outdoor firing ranges.

Military and police small arms firing range noise assessments

Firing ranges are by their nature sources of very loud noise that can damage the hearing of on-site shooters and observers while also potentially causing a noise disturbance off-site. Small arms firing ranges are typically indoor ranges when located in urban or suburban settings, but when located in rural settings, they are typically outdoor ranges designed with varying types and degrees of noise abatement or no noise abatement at all, depending on the setting. Public firing ranges can be busy and in continuous use under good lighting and favorable weather conditions. Often there are wait times. Military and police (M&P) firing ranges are typically active under scheduled usage times. Both M&P ranges host a variety of small arms, from fully automatic and semi-automatic weapons to bolt-action sniper rifles and large caliber side arms, all of which are very loud. It is often mandatory for M&P personnel to undergo shooting practice on a regular basis with some assigned personnel having certification or qualification performance requirements. Several examples of military and police firing ranges, with their issues, similarities and differences, are discussed. Personnel, interior and/or exterior noise abatement measures are usually necessary for these indoor and outdoor M&P firing ranges. Firing ranges are by their nature sources of very loud noise that can damage the hearing of on-site shooters and observers while also potentially causing a noise disturbance off-site. Small arms firing ranges are typically indoor ranges when located in urban or suburban settings, but when located in rural settings, they are typically outdoor ranges designed with varying types and degrees of noise abatement or no noise abatement at all, depending on the setting. Public firing ranges can be busy and in continuous use under good lighting and favorable weather conditions. Often there are wait times. Military and police (M&P) firing ranges are typically active under scheduled usage times. Both M&P ranges host a variety of small arms, from fully automatic and semi-automatic weapons to bolt-action sniper rifles and large caliber side arms, all of which are very loud. It is often mandatory for M&P personnel to undergo shooting practice on a regular basis with some assigned personnel having certification or qualif...

Using Ca3(PO4)2 nanoparticles to reduce metal mobility in shooting range soils

Shooting activities are a very important source of contamination as they are commonly detected high concentrations of Pb in the soils from these facilities. Different remediation methods imply the immobilization of the pollutants by decreasing their mobility and availability and nanotechnology is a promising technique in this field. The effectiveness of calcium phosphate nanoparticles (CPNs) in the remediation of small-arms firing range and trap shooting range soils is evaluated in this work. The operationally defined extractable content of Pb, Cu and Zn is determined together with the interaction of the pollutants with the nanomaterials. Soil samples were treated with the CPNs and after the treatment the extractable contents of Cu, Pb and Zn decrease. To check the retention by the nanoparticles TOF-SIMS (Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) and HR-TEM-EDS (High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy) techniques were applied. The association of Pb and Cu to the CPNs was demonstrated by TOF-SIMS although it also indicated that not all the Pb and Cu contents are linked to the nanoparticles. By means of HR-TEM/EDS it was made out the filamentous shape and the size (50–150nm long and 20–40nm wide) of the CPNs together with their elemental composition (Ca, P and O). The CPNs were identified in treated soil samples together with signals of metals. The decrease on metal extractability detected is, in part, due to the association with CPNs but still more investigation is needed regarding mobility and availability of potentially hazardous elements in soils treated with nanoparticles.

Antimony migration trends from a small arms firing range compared to lead, copper, and zinc

Small arms firing ranges (SAFRs) contain a mixed amount of bullets and bullet fragments accumulated throughout their designed lifetime. Lead-antimony (Pb-Sb) alloy copper (Cu) jacketed bullets are a common modern ammunition used at SAFRs. The impact of bullets with berm material (i.e., soil) generates a heterogeneous distribution of bullets and bullet fragments in the surrounding soil. As bullets and bullet fragments corrode in the berm soil, the migration potential for antimony compared to other metals is quite high. The goal of this study was to evaluate the spatial Sb migration potential from an SAFR as compared to lead, copper, and zinc (Zn) migration from the same SAFR. Berm soil samples were collected along with surface and ground water samples for a preliminary investigation of the Sb migration from an active SAFR. In addition, different aqueous sample preservation techniques were used and evaluated. Soil sample analysis results show the presence of the metals (i.e., Pb, Sb, Cu, and Zn) in the range floor soil samples, indicating the migration of these metals from the berm to the range floor. The groundwater samples indicate that Sb was migrating from the SAFR more readily than the other metals based on the concentration of Sb in the monitoring well farthest from the SAFR berm.

Lead and copper contamination in small arms firing ranges

Firing range activities have been proven to adversely impact the environment. The main concern in small arms firing ranges (SAFRs) is the fate and transport of heavy metals from bullets and bullet fragments accumulating in soil with lead (Pb) being the primary contaminant. Frequently however, bullets are jacketed with copper (Cu). The presence of Cu results in an increased galvanic corrosion potential. This in turn may lead to elevated levels of Pb release and subsequent lead mobility. In this paper we investigate the presence of Pb and Cu in an attempt to identify any synergistic effects between Pb and Cu and to accurately establish the extent of contamination. Soil samples from an active 20-position firing range and from a former range located at Fort Irwin in the Mojave Desert were analyzed for total concentrations of the respective metals. Overall, the Pb and Cu concentration levels and their spatial distribution correlated well with the associated range activities. Most Cu and Pb contamination appeared to concentrate at the berm surface with contamination levels rapidly decreasing with depth. Metal concentrations were elevated in the immediate vicinity of the target area, but were somewhat lower in areas between target positions. The presence of Cu increases the solubility of Pb by increasing its corrosion potential. Pb corrosion results in the formation of hydrocerussite and cerussite, a Pb carbonates.

Pore Water Quality in the Upper Part of the Vadose Zone under an Operating Canadian Small Arms Firing Range Backstop Berm

Canadian military small arms firing range (SAFR) backstop berm soils contain high concentrations of Pb, Cu, Sb, and Zn. Three Teflon® cylindrical lysimeters were installed in the vadose zone of the backstop berm in order to characterize the pore water quality. Copper-Zn concentrations were below their respective Québec drinking water thresholds, and Pb-Sb concentrations were above the criteria in many cases, indicating that a metal vertical migration occurs in the vadose zone. Metal concentrations in pore water were, in decreasing order, Zn > Pb > Sb > Cu. Calculated annual metal leaching rates showed that a rather small portion of the metals in the soil were mobilized in the vadose zone, and that metals were a potential source of contamination for extremely long periods of time, highlighting the importance of finding ways to remediate such soils in order to limit metal mobility in SAFR backstop berms.

Characterization and metal availability of copper, lead, antimony and zinc contamination at four Canadian small arms firing ranges

Backstop soils of four small‐arms firing ranges (SAFRs) of the Canadian Force Bases (CFBs) were characterized in terms of their total soil Cu, Pb, Sb and Zn concentrations, grain size distribution, mineralogy, chemical properties, vertical in‐depth contamination distribution (for one CFB), and scanning electron microscope (SEM–EDS) characterization. Metal availability from the soils was evaluated with three leaching tests: the toxicity characteristics leaching procedure (TCLP), representing a landfill leachate; the synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP), representing field conditions; and the gastric juice simulation test (GJST), representing the leachate of the human stomach during the digestive process and, therefore, the potential metal transfer to humans in the case of soil ingestion. Metal analyses of soils and leaching test extracts were conducted with an Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP‐AES) instrument. Total soil results showed maximal concentrations of 27,100 mg/kg for Pb, 7720 mg/kg for Cu, 1080 mg/kg for Zn, and 570 mg/kg for Sb. The SEM–EDS analysis showed significant amounts of lead carbonates, which resulted from the alteration of the initial metallic Pb particles. Metal availability evaluation with the leaching tests showed that TCLP Pb and Sb thresholds were exceeded. For the SPLP and the GJST, the drinking water thresholds of the Ministère du Développement Durable, de l’Environnement et des Parcs (MDDEP) of Québec were exceeded by Pb and Sb. The metal availability assessment showed that SAFR backstop soils may pose a potential risk to the environment, groundwater and humans, and affect the management of such soils in order to minimize potential metal dispersion in the environment.

The effect of phosphate application on the mobility of antimony in firing range soils

Chemical and biogenic sources of phosphate are commonly accepted in situ treatment methods for immobilization of lead (Pb) in soil. The metalloid antimony (Sb), commonly associated with Pb in the environment, exists as either a neutral species or a negatively charged oxyanion. Antimony is used in the manufacture of bullets as a hardening agent, constituting approximately 3% of the bullet mass. Technological solutions to reduce the migration of metals from small arms firing range (SAFR) soils for environmental compliance purposes must be robust with respect to multi-component systems containing both cationic and anionic contaminants. The effect of varying physico-chemical soil properties on Sb mobility post-firing was assessed in this study for six soil types using common analytical protocols and methods related to regulatory criteria. The sands (SM and SP) demonstrated the greatest Sb solubility in post-firing leachate samples and therefore were selected to evaluate the effects of five commercially available stabilization amendments on Sb mobility. Enhanced Sb leaching was experimentally confirmed in the phosphate-treated soils compared to both the untreated control soil and the sulfur-based amendment, and thus suggests competition for negative sorption sites between Sb and phosphate. However, the 5% Buffer Block® calcium phosphate amendment did not exhibit the same enhanced Sb release. This can be attributed to the inclusion of aluminum hydroxide in the amendment composition. Technologies are needed that will adequately immobilize Pb without mobilizing oxyanions such as Sb. Further research will be required to elucidate binding mechanisms and redox conditions that govern the mobility of Sb on SAFRs.

Lead levels in long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) hair from Singapore

Nonhuman primates are potentially good sentinels of environmental toxicants because they share a similar physiology and life history with humans. In this report we present the results of an analysis of lead concentrations in hair from long-tailed macaques in Singapore. We hypothesized that because Singapore is highly urbanized, its macaque population may be exposed to higher levels of lead. The results of our study indicated that Singapore's macaque population has not been exposed to high levels of environmental lead. Compared with previous studies of lead levels in human and nonhuman primate hair, the results of our analysis indicate a low level of exposure of monkeys to environmental lead (n=27, arithmetic mean=2.51ppm, max=6.45, min=0.21ppm). Hair lead concentrations varied both within social groups and by geographic location, with the highest concentrations observed in monkeys residing within an area containing a small-arms firing range and a manufacturing facility. Although lead exposure in this area seems to be low, additional monitoring and possible remediation may be warranted. Our study is among the first to illustrate how primates can serve as potential sentinels of environmental toxicants such as lead. Future research examining the efficacy of primates as sentinels of lead exposure should include monitoring of environmental lead levels, and comparison of hair lead levels with levels measured in blood samples.

Evaluation of lead movement from the abiotic to biotic at a small-arms firing range

An investigation to characterize the extent and speciation of lead contamination in water, soil, and surrounding biota was conducted at a small-arms firing and skeet range in West Point, New York. Specifically, lead concentrations were examined in sediment, soil, water, plants, fish and invertebrates. There is an elevated concentration of lead in the soil and sediment up to 11,000 μg/g and 340 μg/g and also evidence of bioconcentration of the lead by the surrounding biota. Earthworms had up to 90% higher concentrations of lead while tadpoles showed 20% higher concentrations compared with their controls. Lead uptake by indigenous plants gave varying results. Two species bioconcentrated lead 20 and 55 times greater than the control plants. These differences were significant (P <0.05 level) when tested by the student’s t test. Further studies show that the total leachable lead was highest in the invertebrates and vertebrates but not in the plants.