SMAD Specific E3 Ubiquitin Protein Research Articles

Quercetin-induced degradation of RhoC suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma invasion and metastasis.

Tumor metastasis and recurrence are major causes of mortality in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that is still lack of effective therapeutic targets and drugs. Previous reports implied that ras homolog family member C (RhoC) plays a toxic role on metastasis and proliferation of cancer. In this research, the correlation between RhoC and metastasis ability was confirmed by invitro experiments and TCGA database. We explored whether quercetin could inhibit cell migration or invasion by transwell assay. Real-time PCR, overexpression and ubiquitination assay, etc. were applied in mechanism study. Primary HCC cells and animal models including patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) were employed to evaluate the anti-metastasis effects of quercetin. Clinical relevance and in vitro experiments further confirmed the level of RhoC was positively correlated with invasion and metastasis ability of HCC. Then we uncovered that quercetin could attenuate invasion and metastasis of HCC by downregulating RhoC's level in vitro, in vivo and PDXs. Furthermore, mechanistic investigations displayed quercetin hindered the E3 ligase expression of SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (SMURF2) leading to enhancement of RhoC's ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Our research has revealed the novel mechanisms quercetin regulates degradation of RhoC level by targeting SMURF2 and identified quercetin may be a potential compound for HCC therapy.

Mettl3‑mediated m6A RNA methylation regulates osteolysis induced by titanium particles.

Peri‑prosthetic osteolysis (PPO) induced by wear particles is considered the primary cause of titanium prosthesis failure and revision surgery. The specific molecular mechanisms involve titanium particles inducing multiple intracellular pathways, which impact disease prevention and the targeted therapy of PPO. Notably, N6‑methyladenosine (m6A) serves critical roles in epigenetic regulation, particularly in bone metabolism and inflammatory responses. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the role of RNA methylation in titanium particle‑induced osteolysis. Results of reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR (RT‑qPCR), western blotting, ELISA and RNA dot blot assays revealed that titanium particles induced osteogenic inhibition and proinflammatory responses, accompanied by the reduced expression of methyltransferase‑like (Mettl) 3, a key component of m6A methyltransferase. Specific lentiviruses vectors were employed for Mettl3 knockdown and overexpression experiments. RT‑qPCR, western blotting and ELISA revealed that the knockdown of Mettl3 induced osteogenic inhibition and proinflammatory responses comparable with that induced by titanium particle, while Mettl3 overexpression attenuated titanium particle‑induced cellular reactions. Methylated RNA immunoprecipitation‑qPCR results revealed that titanium particles mediated the methylation of two inhibitory molecules, namely Smad7 and SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1, via Mettl3 in bone morphogenetic protein signaling, leading to osteogenic inhibition. Furthermore, titanium particles induced activation of the nucleotide binding oligomerization domain 1 signaling pathway through methylation regulation, and the subsequent activation of the MAPK and NF‑κB pathways. Collectively, the results of the present study indicated that titanium particles utilized Mettl3 as an upstream regulatory molecule to induce osteogenic inhibition and inflammatory responses. Thus, the present study may provide novel insights into potential therapeutic targets for aseptic loosening in titanium prostheses.

SMURF1 controls the PPP3/calcineurin complex and TFEB at a regulatory node for lysosomal biogenesis

ABSTRACT Macroautophagy/autophagy is a homeostatic process in response to multiple signaling, such as the lysosome-dependent recycling process of cellular components. Starvation-induced MTOR inactivation and PPP3/calcineurin activation were shown to promote the nuclear translocation of TFEB. However, the mechanisms via which signals from endomembrane damage are transmitted to activate PPP3/calcineurin and orchestrate autophagic responses remain unknown. This study aimed to show that autophagy regulator SMURF1 controlled TFEB nuclear import for transcriptional activation of the lysosomal biogenesis. We showed that blocking SMURF1 affected lysosomal biogenesis in response to lysosomal damage by preventing TFEB nuclear translocation. It revealed galectins recognized endolysosomal damage, and led to recruitment of SMURF1 and the PPP3/calcineurin apparatus on lysosomes. SMURF1 interacts with both LGALS3 and PPP3CB to form the LGALS3-SMURF1-PPP3/calcineurin complex. Importantly, this complex further stabilizes TFEB, thereby activating TFEB for lysosomal biogenesis. We determined that LLOMe-mediated TFEB nuclear import is dependent on SMURF1 under the condition of MTORC1 inhibition. In addition, SMURF1 is required for PPP3/calcineurin activity as a positive regulator of TFEB. SMURF1 controlled the phosphatase activity of the PPP3CB by promoting the dissociation of its autoinhibitory domain (AID) from its catalytic domain (CD). Overexpression of SMURF1 showed similar effects as the constitutive activation of PPP3CB. Thus, SMURF1, which bridges environmental stress with the core autophagosomal and autolysosomal machinery, interacted with endomembrane sensor LGALS3 and phosphatase PPP3CB to control TFEB activation. Abbreviations: ATG: autophagy-related; LLOMe: L-Leucyl-L-Leucine methyl ester; ML-SA1: mucolipin synthetic agonist 1; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; PPP3CB: protein phosphatase 3 catalytic subunit beta; RPS6KB1/p70S6K: ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1; SMURF1: SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1; TFEB: transcription factor EB.

SIRT2 alleviated renal fibrosis by deacetylating SMAD2 and SMAD3 in renal tubular epithelial cells

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is the primary factor that drives fibrosis in most, if not all, forms of chronic kidney disease. In kidneys that are obstructed, specific deletion of Sirt2 in renal tubule epithelial cells (TEC) has been shown to aggravate renal fibrosis, while renal tubule specific overexpression of Sirt2 has been shown to ameliorate renal fibrosis. Similarly, specific deletion of Sirt2 in hepatocyte aggravated CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis. In addition, we have demonstrated that SIRT2 overexpression and knockdown restrain and enhance TGF-β-induced fibrotic gene expression, respectively, in TEC. Mechanistically, SIRT2 reduced the phosphorylation, acetylation, and nuclear localization levels of SMAD2 and SMAD3, leading to inhibition of the TGF-β signaling pathway. Further studies have revealed that that SIRT2 was able to directly interact with and deacetylate SMAD2 at lysine 451, promoting its ubiquitination and degradation. Notably, loss of SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 abolishes the ubiquitination and degradation of SMAD2 induced by SIRT2 in SMAD2. Regarding SMAD3, we have found that SIRT2 interact with and deacetylates SMAD3 at lysine 341 and 378 only in the presence of TGF-β, thereby reducing its activation. This study provides initial indication of the anti-fibrotic role of SIRT2 in renal tubules and hepatocytes, suggesting its therapeutic potential for fibrosis.

A novel polypeptide CAPG-171aa encoded by circCAPG plays a critical role in triple-negative breast cancer

BackgroundThe treatment of Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) has always been challenging due to its heterogeneity and the absence of well-defined molecular targets. The present study aims to elucidate the role of protein-coding circRNAs in the etiology and carcinogenesis of TNBC.MethodsCircRNA expression data in TNBC (GEO: GSE113230, GSE101123) were reanalyzed and then circCAPG was selected for further study. To identify the polypeptide-coding function of circCAPG, a series of experiments, such as Mass spectrometry and dual-luciferase reporter assays were conducted. Cell proliferation, apoptosis and metastasis parameters were determined to investigate the cancerous functions CAPG-171aa plays in both TNBC organoids and nude mice. Mechanistically, the relation between CAPG-171aa and STK38 in TNBC was verified by immunoprecipitation analyses and mass spectrometry. The interactions between SLU7 and its binding site on circCAPG were validated by RIP-qPCR experiments.ResultsIn both TNBC clinical samples and cell lines, the expression level of circCAPG was identified to be higher compared with normal ones and positively correlated with the overall survival (n = 132) in a 10-year follow-up study, in which the area under the curve of receiver operating characteristic was 0.8723 with 100% specificity and 80% sensitivity. In addition, we found that circCAPG knockdown (KD) significantly inhibited the growth of TNBC organoids. Intriguingly, circCAPG can be translated into a polypeptide named CAPG-171aa which promotes tumor growh by disrupting the binding of serine/threonine kinase 38 (STK38) to SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SMURF1) and thereby preventing MEKK2 ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Furthermore, we found that SLU7 Homolog- Splicing Factor (SLU7) can regulate the bio-generation of circCAPG through binding to the flanking Alu sequences of circRNA transcripts.ConclusionscircCAPG significantly enhances the proliferation and metastasis of TNBC cells by encoding a novel polypeptide CAPG-171aa and afterwards activates MEKK2-MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway. Additionally, the formation of circCAPG is found to be mediated by SLU7. The present study provides innovative insight into the role of protein-coding circRNAs CAPG-171aa in TNBC, and its capacity to serve as a promising prognostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target in TNBC.Graphical abstract

Design and Synthesis of Inhibitors of the E3 Ligase SMAD Specific E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase 1 as a Treatment for Lung Remodeling in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension.

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a devastating rare disease, which despite currently available treatments, still represents a high unmet medical need. Specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SMURF1) is a HECT E3 ligase that ubiquitinates key signaling molecules from the TGFβ/BMP pathways, which are of great relevance in the pathophysiology of PAH. Herein, the design and synthesis of novel potent small-molecule SMURF1 ligase inhibitors are described. Lead molecule 38 has demonstrated good oral pharmacokinetics in rats and significant efficacy in a rodent model of pulmonary hypertension.

Circ_0006873 suppresses the osteogenic differentiation of human‐derived mesenchymal stem cells through mediating miR‐20a/SMURF2 axis in vitro

The clinical application of human-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in osteoporosis (OP) treatment is promising. We aimed to uncover the role of circular RNA 0006873 (circ_0006873) in OP progression using hMSCs. The levels of circ_0006873, pantothenate kinase 2 (PANK2) messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA-20a (miR-20a), SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (SMURF2) mRNA and the mRNA levels of osteogenesis-related markers were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The protein expression of osteogenesis-related markers and SMURF2 was detected by Western blot assay. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity were determined using an ALP staining Kit and an ALP Colorimetric Assay Kit. Circ_0006873 was highly expressed in the serum samples and bone tissue samples of OP patients compared with control cases. Circ_0006873 overexpression down-regulated the expression of osteogenesis-related markers and reduced ALP staining and activity. Circ_0006873 down-regulated miR-20a level through its interaction with miR-20a in hMSCs. Circ_0006873 suppressed osteogenic differentiation through targeting miR-20a. SMURF2 was a molecular target of miR-20a, and miR-20a promoted osteogenic differentiation through targeting SMURF2. Circ_0006873 suppressed the osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs by upregulating SMURF2 level via sponging miR-20a in vitro.

CDCA2 promotes melanoma progression by inhibiting ubiquitin-mediated degradation of Aurora kinase A

BackgroundMalignant melanoma is one of the most aggressive types of malignant skin cancer. CDCA2 is of great significance in many tumours, but its role in melanoma is unclear. MethodsCDCA2 expression in melanoma samples and benign melanocytic naevus tissues was detected by GeneChip and bioinformatics analysis as well as immunohistochemistry. The gene expression in melanoma cells was detected by quantitative PCR detecting system and Western blot. Melanoma models with gene knockdown or overexpression were constructed in vitro, and the effects of gene knockdown or overexpression on melanoma cell phenotype and tumour growth were evaluated by celigo cell counting, transwell, wound healing, flow cytometry and subcutaneous nude mouse tumour models. GeneChip primeview, Ingenuity pathway analysis and bioinformatics analysis combined with co-immunoprecipitation, protein stability experiments and ubiquitination analysis were performed to demonstrate the downstream genes and regulatory mechanism of CDCA2. ResultsCDCA2 was highly expressed in melanoma tissues, and CDCA2 level was positively correlated with tumour stage and poor prognosis. CDCA2 downregulation significantly reduced cell migration and proliferation by inducing G1/S phase arrest and apoptosis. CDCA2 knockdown suppressed tumour growth and Ki67 expression in vivo. Mechanistically, CDCA2 inhibited ubiquitin-dependent Aurora kinase A (AURKA) protein degradation by acting on SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1. AURKA downregulation inhibited melanoma cell proliferation and migration and promoted apoptosis. High expression of AURKA implied poor survival in melanoma patients. Moreover, AURKA knockdown constricted CDCA2 overexpression-induced proliferation and migration. ConclusionCDCA2, which was upregulated in melanoma, enhanced AURKA protein stability by inhibiting SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1-mediated AURKA ubiquitination, thus playing a carcinogenic role in melanoma progression.

SMURF1 inhibits the Th17 and Th17.1 polarization and improves the Treg/Th17 imbalance in systemic lupus erythematosus through the ubiquitination of RORγt

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease. This study aimed to investigate the role of SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SMURF1) in the Th17 and Th17.1 differentiation and Treg/Th17 imbalance, which are major factors contributing to the pathogenesis of SLE. SLE patients and healthy individuals were recruited to detect the SMURF1 levels in naïve CD4+ cells from peripheral blood. Purified and expanded naïve CD4+ T cells were employed to evaluate the effects of SMURF1 on Th17 and Th17.1 polarization in vitro. MRL/lpr lupus model was employed to explore the disease phenotype as well as Treg/Th17 balance in vivo. The results showed that SMURF1 was down-regulated in naïve CD4+ T cells in peripheral blood of patients with SLE and in spleen of MRL/lpr mice. SMURF1 overexpression suppressed the polarization of naïve CD4+ T cells toward Th17 and Th17.1 phenotype and down-regulated the expression of retinoid-related orphan receptor-gammat (RORγt). Subsequently, SMURF1 down-regulation aggravated the disease phenotype, inflammation, and the Treg/Th17 imbalance in MRL/lpr mice. Furthermore, we found that SMURF overexpression promoted the ubiquitination and decreases the stability of RORγt. In conclusion, SMURF1 inhibited the polarization of Th17 and Th17.1 cells and improved the Treg/Th17 imbalance in SLE, which was mediated as least partly by the ubiquitination of RORγt.

CircSmox knockdown alleviates PC12 cell apoptosis and inflammation in spinal cord injury by miR‐340‐5p/Smurf1 axis

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a traumatic central nervous system disorder that leads to irreversible neurological dysfunction. Emerging evidence has shown that differentially expressed circular RNAs (circRNAs) after SCI is closely associated with the pathophysiological process. Herein, the potential function of circRNA spermine oxidase (circSmox) in functional recovery after SCI was investigated. Differentiated PC12 cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were employed as an in vitro model for neurotoxicity research. Levels of genes and proteins were detected by quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot analysis. Cell viability and apoptosis were determined by CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein level of apoptosis-related markers. The levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Dual-luciferase reporter, RIP, and pull-down assays were used to confirm the target relationship between miR-340-5p and circSmox or Smurf1 (SMAD Specific E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase 1). LPS elevated the levels of circSmox and Smurf1, but decreased the levels of miR-340-5p in PC12 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Functionally, circSmox silencing alleviated LPS-induced apoptosis and inflammation in PC12 cells in vitro. Mechanistically, circSmox directly sponged miR-340-5p, which targeted Smurf1. Rescue experiments showed that miR-340-5p inhibition attenuated the neuroprotective effect of circSmox siRNA in PC12 cells. Moreover, miR-340-5p suppressed LPS-triggered neurotoxicity in PC12 cells, which was reversed by Smurf1 overexpression. CircSmox enhances LPS-induced apoptosis and inflammation via miR-340-5p/Smurf1 axis, providing an exciting view of the potential involvement of circSmox in SCI pathogenesis.

Role of miR-300-3p in Leydig cell function and differentiation: A therapeutic target for obesity-related testosterone deficiency

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate various cellular functions, but their specific roles in the regulation of Leydig cells (LCs) have yet to be fully understood. Here, we found that the expression of miR-300-3p varied significantly during the differentiation from progenitor LCs (PLCs) to adult LCs (ALCs). High expression of miR-300-3p in PLCs inhibited testosterone production and promoted PLC proliferation by targeting the steroidogenic factor-1 (Sf-1) and transcription factor forkhead box O1 (FoxO1) genes, respectively. As PLCs differentiated into ALCs, the miR-300-3p expression level significantly decreased, which promoted testosterone biosynthesis and suppressed proliferation of ALCs by upregulating SF-1 and FoxO1 expression. The LH/METTL3/SMURF2/SMAD2 cascade pathway controlled miR-300-3p expression, in which luteinizing hormone (LH) upregulated SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (SMURF2) expression through methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3)-mediated Smurf2 N6-methyladenosine modification. The Smurf2 then suppressed miR-300 transcription by inhibiting SMAD family member 2 (SMAD2) binding to the promoter of miR-300. Notably, miR-300-3p was associated with an obesity-related testosterone deficiency in men and the inhibition of miR-300-3p effectively rescued testosterone deficiency in obese mice. These findings suggested that miR-300-3p plays a pivotal role in LC differentiation and function, and could be a promising diagnostic or therapeutic target for obesity-related testosterone deficiency.

HSP90β chaperoning SMURF1-mediated LATS proteasomal degradation in the regulation of bone formation

Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) molecular chaperone is responsible for the stabilization and biological activity of a diverse set of client proteins. We have previously demonstrated that inhibition of HSP90 by 17-Demethoxy-17-allyaminogeldanmycin (17-AAG) not only reverses the glucocorticoid-induced bone loss but also enhances the basal level of bone mass in mice. Here, we investigate the potential mechanism underlying HSP90-associated osteoblast differentiation and bone formation. Knockdown of HSP90β but not HSP90α or inhibition of HSP90 by 17-AAG or NVP-BEP800 negates the protein levels of large tumor suppressor (LATS), the core kinases of Hippo signaling, resulting in the inactivation of LATS and activation of Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), in the enhancement of osteoblastic differentiation. In contrast, genetic ablation of Lats1 in mesenchymal stem cells is sufficient to abolish the HSP90 inhibition-induced osteoblastic differentiation and bone formation. Mechanistically, HSP90β but not HSP90α chaperones and prevents the SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SMURF1)-mediated and ubiquitination-dependent LATS protein proteasomal degradation, whereas 17-AAG abolishes these effects of HSP90β. Thus, these results uncover the HSP90β chaperoning SMURF1-mediated LATS protein proteasomal degradation and the subsequent YAP/TAZ activation as a hitherto uncharacterized mechanism controlling osteoblastic differentiation and bone formation.

TRAF4 hyperactivates HER2 signaling and contributes to Trastuzumab resistance in HER2-positive breast cancer

The HER2 receptor modulates downstream signaling by forming homodimers and heterodimers with other members of the HER family. For patients with HER2-positive breast cancer, Trastuzumab, an anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody as first-line therapy has shown significant survival benefits. However, the development of acquired resistance to Trastuzumab continues to be a significant obstacle. TNF receptor-associated factor 4 (TRAF4) upregulation was discovered to be associated with a worse clinical outcome. Here we identified TRAF4 overexpression as one of the putative mechanisms for HER2-positive breast cancer cells to maintain HER2 signaling during Trastuzumab treatment, while TRAF4 knockdown reduced HER2 stability and improved Trastuzumab sensitivity. Mechanistically, TRAF4 regulates HER2 level through its impact on SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase protein 2 (SMURF2). The development of a membrane-associated protein complex containing HER2, TRAF4, and SMURF2 has been observed. SMURF2 bound to the HER2 cytoplasmic domain, and directly ubiquitinated it leading to HER2 degradation, whereas TRAF4 stabilized HER2 by degrading SMURF2 and inhibiting the binding of SMURF2 to HER2. Moreover, downregulation of TRAF4 has decreased the AKT/mTOR signaling. In conclusion, we discovered a new HER2 signaling regulation that involves the TRAF4-SMURF2 complex, a possible mechanism that might contribute to anti-HER2 resistance, making TRAF4 a viable target for treating HER2 + breast cancer.

Abstract 120: HIF-1α regulation by Smurf2-mediated protein degradation in a VHL-independent manner

Abstract HIF-1α is the main mediator of hypoxic response in cells and contributes to angiogenesis, metastasis and therapy resistance in cancer. The canonical pathway of HIF-1α degradation in normoxia is through the Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) E3 ubiquitin ligase. We previously found that knockdown of CDK4 decreased HIF-1α expression in a VHL-independent manner. To explore the mechanism of CDK4-induced HIF-1α stabilization, we performed a proteomic analysis on HIF-1α-interacting proteins with palbociclib treatment, a bioinformatic prediction of HIF-1α-targeting E3 ubiquitin ligases and identified SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (Smurf2) to be involved in a non-canonical HIF-1α regulation mechanism. Overexpression of Smurf2 enhanced the ubiquitination of HIF-1α and reduced expression of HIF-1α in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. Smurf2 overexpression downregulated HIF-1α target gene SLC2A1 but not HIF1A mRNA level in hypoxia. Knockdown of SMURF2 increased HIF-1α expression in normoxia even when CDK4 was knocked-down. TCGA analysis showed correlation between high SMURF2 mRNA and better prognosis in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC). In KIRC, VHL loss is a frequent mutational event that leads to high constitutive expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α. Thus, we investigated a role for Smurf2 in HIF regulation in this cancer type. Overexpression of Smurf2 suppressed HIF-1α expression in RCC4 VHL-deficient clear cell renal cancer line in normoxia. Knockdown of SMURF2 increased HIF-1α expression in RCC4 cells. Treatment of RCC4 cells with Smurf2 inhibitor Heclin also increased HIF-1α expression in normoxia. HIF-2α expression was reduced upon Smurf2 overexpression in RCC4 cells under normoxia and in SW480 colorectal cancer cells under hypoxia. In summary, Smurf2 mediates VHL-independent HIF-1α degradation, which provides new insights for HIF-1α targeting in cancers especially with VHL deficiency, and targeting of Smurf2 to increase HIF activity may have functional consequences in non-neoplastic disorders. Citation Format: Shuai Zhao, Wafik S. El-Deiry. HIF-1α regulation by Smurf2-mediated protein degradation in a VHL-independent manner [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 120.

Erk5 in Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Regulates Bone Homeostasis by Preventing Osteogenesis in Adulthood.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 (Erk5) belongs to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family. Previously, we demonstrated that Erk5 directly phosphorylates Smad-specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (Smurf2) at Thr249 (Smurf2Thr249) to activate its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. Although we have clarified the importance of Erk5 in embryonic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on skeletogenesis, its role in adult bone marrow (BM)-MSCs on bone homeostasis remains unknown. Leptin receptor-positive (LepR+) BM-MSCs represent a major source of bone in adult bone marrow and are critical regulators of postnatal bone homeostasis. Here, we identified Erk5 in BM-MSCs as an important regulator of bone homeostasis in adulthood. Bone marrow tissue was progressively osteosclerotic in mice lacking Erk5 in LepR+ BM-MSCs with age, accompanied by increased bone formation and normal bone resorption in vivo. Erk5 deficiency increased the osteogenic differentiation of BM-MSCs along with a higher expression of Runx2 and Osterix, essential transcription factors for osteogenic differentiation, without affecting their stemness in vitro. Erk5 deficiency decreased Smurf2Thr249 phosphorylation and subsequently increased Smad1/5/8-dependent signaling in BM-MSCs. The genetic introduction of the Smurf2T249E mutant (a phosphomimetic mutant) suppressed the osteosclerotic phenotype in Erk5-deficient mice. These findings suggest that the Erk5-Smurf2Thr249 axis in BM-MSCs plays a critical role in the maintenance of proper bone homeostasis by preventing excessive osteogenesis in adult bone marrow.

Comparative Analysis of Gene Expression in Fibroblastic Foci in Patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis and Pulmonary Sarcoidosis.

Background: Fibroblastic foci (FF) are characteristic features of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP)/idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and one cardinal feature thought to represent a key mechanism of pathogenesis. Hence, FF have a high impact on UIP/IPF diagnosis in current guidelines. However, although less frequent, these histomorphological hallmarks also occur in other fibrotic pulmonary diseases. Currently, there is therefore a gap in knowledge regarding the underlying molecular similarities and differences of FF in different disease entities. Methods: In this work, we analyzed the compartment-specific gene expression profiles of FF in IPF and sarcoidosis in order to elucidate similarities and differences as well as shared pathomechanisms. For this purpose, we used laser capture microdissection, mRNA and protein expression analysis. Biological pathway analysis was performed using two different gene expression databases. As control samples, we used healthy lung tissue that was donated but not used for lung transplantation. Results: Based on Holm Bonferroni corrected expression data, mRNA expression analysis revealed a significantly altered expression signature for 136 out of 760 genes compared to healthy controls while half of these showed a similar regulation in both groups. Immunostaining of selected markers from each group corroborated these results. However, when comparing all differentially expressed genes with the fdr-based expression data, only 2 of these genes were differentially expressed between sarcoidosis and IPF compared to controls, i.e., calcium transport protein 1 (CAT1) and SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (SMURF1), both in the sarcoidosis group. Direct comparison of sarcoidosis and IPF did not show any differentially regulated genes independent from the statistical methodology. Biological pathway analysis revealed a number of fibrosis-related pathways pronounced in IPF without differences in the regulatory direction. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that FF of end-stage IPF and sarcoidosis lungs, although different in initiation, are similar in gene and protein expression, encouraging further studies on the use of antifibrotic agents in sarcoidosis.

SMURF2 phosphorylation at Thr249 modifies glioma stemness and tumorigenicity by regulating TGF-\u03b2 receptor stability

Glioma stem cells (GSCs) contribute to the pathogenesis of glioblastoma, the most malignant form of glioma. The implication and underlying mechanisms of SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (SMURF2) on the GSC phenotypes remain unknown. We previously demonstrated that SMURF2 phosphorylation at Thr249 (SMURF2Thr249) activates its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. Here, we demonstrate that SMURF2Thr249 phosphorylation plays an essential role in maintaining GSC stemness and tumorigenicity. SMURF2 silencing augmented the self-renewal potential and tumorigenicity of patient-derived GSCs. The SMURF2Thr249 phosphorylation level was low in human glioblastoma pathology specimens. Introduction of the SMURF2T249A mutant resulted in increased stemness and tumorigenicity of GSCs, recapitulating the SMURF2 silencing. Moreover, the inactivation of SMURF2Thr249 phosphorylation increases TGF-β receptor (TGFBR) protein stability. Indeed, TGFBR1 knockdown markedly counteracted the GSC phenotypes by SMURF2T249A mutant. These findings highlight the importance of SMURF2Thr249 phosphorylation in maintaining GSC phenotypes, thereby demonstrating a potential target for GSC-directed therapy.

CBX3 Regulated By YBX1 Promotes Smoking-induced Pancreatic Cancer Progression via Inhibiting SMURF2 Expression.

As a key reversible and heritable mechanism of transcriptional regulation, the epigenetic modification plays a crucial role in tumorigenesis. Of note, tobacco smoking induces epigenetic modifications to promote pancreatic cancer development. Chromobox protein homolog 3 (CBX3) acts as an epigenetic regulator, modulating gene expression of downstream targets via chromatin modifications. To date, the relationship between CBX3 and smoking in pancreatic cancer remains unknown. This study aimed to uncover the specific role and underlying mechanism of CBX3 in smoking-related pancreatic cancer. The bioinformatics analyses were conducted to identify CBX3 as a key player in tobacco-induced pancreatic cancer. The abnormal upregulation of CBX3 was associated with poor prognosis in pancreatic cancer patients. Moreover, cigarette smoke extract (CSE) exposure promoted the overexpression of Y-box-binding protein 1 (YBX1), which consequently led to upregulated CBX3 in pancreatic cancer cells. We also revealed that CBX3 enhanced pancreatic cancer progression, likely by inhibiting the expression of SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (SMURF2) and promoting the activation of TGF‐β signaling. In summary, the YBX1/CBX3/SMURF2 signaling axis may be a promising therapeutic target in patients with smoking-related pancreatic cancer.

Overexpressed Smurf1 is degraded in glioblastoma cells through autophagy in a p62-dependent manner.

Homologous to E6AP C‐terminus (HECT)‐type E3 ubiquitin ligase SMAD‐specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (Smurf1) was originally identified to ubiquitinate Smad protein in the TGF‐β/BMP signaling pathway. Recently, Smurf1 has been reported to promote tumorigenesis by regulating multiple biological processes. High expression of Smurf1 plays a vital role in brain tumor progression by mediating aberrant cell signaling pathways. Previous reports have shown that Smurf1 is degraded mainly through the ubiquitin–proteasome system, but it remains unclear whether Smurf1 is degraded by autophagy in tumor cells. In this study, we show that autophagy activators promote Smurf1 degradation in glioblastoma (GB) cells. The autophagy receptor p62 colocalizes with ubiquitinated substrates to promote sequestration of cytoplasm cargo into the autophagosome. We report that autophagic degradation of Smurf1 is dependent on p62. Moreover, the autophagic degradation of Smurf1 is prevented in the absence of the HECT domain or E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. We further proved that activation of autophagy leads to a decrease of Smurf1 and the inhibition of the phosphoinositide 3‐kinase/protein kinase B signaling pathway in GB cells. Our results suggest that enhancement of autophagic degradation of Smurf1 may be a potential approach to treating GB.

Identification of Smurf2 as a HIF-1α degrading E3 ubiquitin ligase.

The major adaptive response to hypoxia involves hypoxia-inducible factor HIF-1α which is regulated by von Hippel Lindau (VHL) E3 ligase. We previously observed a stabilization of HIF-1α by cyclin-dependent kinases CDK1 and CDK4/6 that is independent of VHL, hypoxia or p53, and found that CDK4/6 inhibitors destabilize HIF-1α under normoxia and hypoxia. To further investigate the molecular mechanism of HIF-1α destabilization by CDK1 or CDK4/6 inhibitors, we performed a proteomic screen on immunoprecipitated HIF-1α from hypoxic colorectal cancer cells that were either untreated or treated with CDK1 inhibitor Ro3306 and CDK4/6 inhibitor palbociclib. Our proteomics screen identified a number of candidates that were enriched in palbociclib-treated hypoxic cells including SMAD specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (Smurf2). We also identified a HIF-1α peptide that appeared to be differentially phosphorylated after palbociclib treatment. Gene knockdown of SMURF2 increased basal expression of HIF-1α even in the presence of Ro3306 or two different CDK4/6 inhibitors, palbociclib and abemaciclib. Overexpression of Smurf2 inhibited expression of HIF-1α and enhanced HIF-1α ubiquitination in normoxia. Proteasome inhibitor MG-132 partially rescued HIF-1α expression when Smurf2 was overexpressed. Smurf2 overexpression also inhibited HIF-1α expression level in two other cell lines, SW480 and VHL-deficient RCC4. Overexpression of SMURF2 mRNA is correlated with improved disease-free survival and overall survival in clear cell renal cell cancer. Our results unravel a previously unknown mechanism involving Smurf2 for HIF-1α destabilization in CDK4/6 inhibitor-treated cells, thereby shedding light on VHL-independent HIF-1α regulation.