Skeletal Element Representation Research Articles

Animals in Mortuary Practices of Bronze-Age Pastoral Societies: Caprine Use at the Site of Dunping in Northwestern China.

The late second and first millennium BC witnessed extensive economic, cultural, and political exchanges between pastoralists and sedentary farming states in East Asia. Decades of archaeological fieldwork across northern China have revealed a large number of burial sites associated with pastoralists during the first millennium BC. These sites were characterized by the inhumation of specific animal parts in burials, predominantly the skulls and hooves of sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. However, the selection preference for these animals and how they were integrated into the mortuary contexts of these pastoral societies remain poorly investigated. Here, we report a preliminary analysis of caprine remains from 70 burials at the site of Dunping in the southern Gansu region of northwestern China, dated to approximately the seventh to fourth centuries BC. Based on an examination of species composition, post-depositional effects, traces of human alteration, skeletal element representation, and age at death, we discussed the selection, slaughtering, and inhumation of caprines concerning the mortuary practices at the site. Comparisons between Dunping and several other contemporaneous burial sites in neighboring regions, specifically in terms of the mortality profiles, further highlight distinct patterns in the selection of caprines for mortuary purposes among pastoral societies. These differences suggest varying degrees of emphasis placed on the economic and social significance attributed to caprines. Our findings provide new insights into the roles that caprines played in both ritual performances and subsistence practices among pastoralists in East Asia during the first millennium BC.

Prey body size generates bias for human and avian agents: Cautions for interpreting small game assemblages

Identifying the accumulating agent(s) of small animal assemblages at archaeological sites is challenging given the range of behaviors, skeletal plans, and body sizes of prey species as well as the range of potential predators. Although mammalian carnivores, raptors, and humans are considered typical predators of small game, there are many contexts—especially in island ecosystems—where humans and raptors are the primary agents for small animal assemblages in the absence of mammalian carnivores. Moreover, smaller animals tend to range in body sizes in these geographically restricted ecosystems. This study aims to broadly explore: 1) how small animal body size affects the taphonomic signature(s) of human and avian predation; and 2) how human and avian-generated small game assemblages compare with one another. To investigate these questions, this study compared the resulting taphonomic patterns of small animal predation by raptors and humans using data collected during a controlled-feeding experiment and an observational study, respectively. In the controlled-feeding experiment, deceased laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus domestica) (50–500 g) were fed to two Milky Eagle Owls (Ketupa lacteus), one King Vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), and two Lappet-Faced Vultures (Torgos tracheliotos). In the observational study, we explored how humans processed various species of small prey ranging in body mass (80–5000 g) by analyzing anthropogenic modifications (i.e., cutmarks, tooth marks, burning). The resulting small animal assemblages were analyzed post-consumption for skeletal element representation, fragmentation and breakage patterns, and bone surface modifications. Results show that small prey body size significantly affects pre-depositional patterning in terms of skeletal element survival, butchering intensities, and cutmark frequencies. Furthermore, our experimentally generated assemblages show that breakage, fragmentation, and element relative abundance patterns can be used to distinguish between human and avian-accumulated assemblages in the archaeological record.

Talking Dead. New burials from Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia) inform on the evolution of mortuary practices from the terminal Pleistocene to the Holocene in Southeast Asia.

Burial elaborations are a human behaviour that, in recent contexts can inform on social diversification, belief systems, and the introduction of new practices resulting from migration or cultural transmission. The study of mortuary practices in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia has revealed complex and diverse treatments of the deceased. This paper contributes to this topic with the description of three new burials excavated in Tron Bon Lei (Alor Island, Indonesia) dated to 7.5, 10, and 12 kya cal BP. In addition to the bioskeletal profiles and palaeohealth observations, we propose the adoption of archaeothanatological methods to characterise burial types in the region. Through the analysis of skeletal element representation, body position, articulation, and grave associations, we provide an example of a holistic approach to mortuary treatments in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Our results provide significant new data for understanding the evolution and diversification of burial practices in Southeast Asia, contributing to a growing body of literature describing prehistoric socio-cultural behaviour in this region.

Understanding the Impact of Trampling on Rodent Bones

Experiments based on the premise of uniformitarism are an effective tool to establish patterns of taphonomic processes acting either before, or after, burial. One process that has been extensively investigated experimentally is the impact of trampling to large mammal bones. Since trampling marks caused by sedimentary friction strongly mimic cut marks made by humans using stone tools during butchery, distinguishing the origin of such modifications is especially relevant to the study of human evolution. In contrast, damage resulting from trampling on small mammal fossil bones has received less attention, despite the fact that it may solve interesting problems relating to site formation processes. While it has been observed that the impact of compression depends on the type of substrate and dryness of the skeletal elements, the fragility of small mammal bones may imply that they will break as a response to compression. Here, we have undertaken a controlled experiment using material resistance compression equipment to simulate a preliminary experiment, previously devised by one of us, on human trampling of owl pellets. Our results demonstrate that different patterns of breakage can be distinguished under wet and dry conditions in mandibles, skulls and long bones that deform or break in a consistent way. Further, small compact bones almost always remain intact, resisting breakage under compression. The pattern obtained here was applied to a Pleistocene small mammal fossil assemblage from Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa). This collection showed unusually extensive breakage and skeletal element representation that could not be entirely explained by excavation procedures or digestion by the predator. We propose that trampling was a significant factor in small mammal bone destruction at Wonderwerk Cave, partly the product of trampling caused by the raptor that introduced the microfauna into the cave, as well as by hominins and other terrestrial animals that entered the cave and trampled pellets covering the cave floor.

Fish in the desert: Identifying fish trade routes and the role of Red Sea parrotfish (Scaridae) during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods

Recent archaeological excavations in the Negev desert of the southern Levant have yielded a surprising and unprecedented amount of fish remains, found in the landfills at Byzantine (4th–7th century CE) and Early Islamic (7th–9th century CE) sites. The significant economic and dietary role of Red Sea fish, especially parrotfish (Scaridae), in addition to fish originating from freshwater habitats, including the Nile, as well as from the Mediterranean Sea, attest to the importance of fish in sophisticated trade networks, which facilitated the transport of fish from different aquatic habitats to the distant provinces. The discovery of Red Sea parrotfish at all three studied sites is of particular interest. Analysis of the Scaridae remains revealed their role as a flagship species of the Red Sea coral-reef fishery and as an essential commodity in the Byzantine and Early Islamic economic systems; as well as the presence of more than one Scaridae species. The study of skeletal element representation indicated that complete fish, larger than 23 cm in length (SL), were transported to the sites. The bone fragmentation patterns reflected typical traditional butchering during the desiccation processes. The fish remains recovered from the desert provide new insights into the infrastructure of commercial networks that enabled the transport of fish over long distances during periods of high demand for fish products.

A campsite on the open plain: Zooarchaeology of Unit III at the Middle Paleolithic site of Nesher Ramla, Israel

The Levantine Middle Paleolithic period displays significant archaeological variability across a series of cave and open-air sites encompassing ca. 200,000 years. Faunal remains are an important source of knowledge regarding hunting and mobility patterns but have mostly been studied in the deep stratigraphic sequences of the Levantine caves. This research addresses questions of hunting, carcass transport, butchery patterns and use of space as they occurred at the Middle Paleolithic open-air site of Nesher Ramla in central Israel. The site is an 8-m-thick sequence within a karst sinkhole, dating to MIS6/5. We conducted the first detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological study at the site, focusing on a sample from Unit III, which is a thin layer with dense lithics and faunal remains, combustion features, manuports, and ochre. Our results reveal an anthropogenic accumulation that is dominated by aurochs, equid, and tortoise remains. The large ungulates’ (aurochs) skeletal-element representation is biased in favor of meat- and fat-rich body parts, coupled with abundant evidence of dismemberment, filleting and marrow extraction. These parts were imported to the sinkhole for processing and consumption. Tortoises are abundant. The lithic assemblages exhibit high frequency of retouched tools and low typological diversity and are characterized by high visibility of personal toolkit components. Coupled with use-wear analysis that suggests a low spectrum of activities and massive occurrence of hammerstones, anvils and manuports, these characteristics indicate that the Unit III occupation represents an intensive camp centering on aurochs processing and butchering.

QUANTIFYING THE DIGESTIVE FINGERPRINTS OF PREDATORS ON THE BONES OF THEIR PREY USING SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

Paleoecological reconstruction relies on accurately determining the taphonomic origin of fossil deposits. Predation is a common mechanism by which skeletal remains become concentrated over time, leading to the formation of modern and fossil prey death assemblages. Skeletal element representation and breakage patterns within such death assemblages can be used to infer the identity of the responsible predator. However, assemblage-level metrics cannot be used to infer if a single fossil specimen is predator-derived. Microscopic digestive etching on individual bones can also indicate past predation events because acidic gastric fluids create distinctive micrometer-scale fissures in cortical bone. Here we establish a quantitative approach to predator identification from small mammal prey remains using microscopic digestive damage patterns. To do this, we collected mandibles from rodents digested by 13 predator species from local wildlife rehabilitation centers, and imaged them using an FEI Quanta 200 SEM. Results indicate that bones exposed to gastric fluids show clear digestive fissures, and that owl-digested specimens can be readily distinguished from specimens that were digested by diurnal raptors and mammalian carnivores. Specifically, owl-digested specimens are characterized by a high density of small and short digestive fissures. Within the owls, digestive fissure patterns appear to scale with owl body size. Finally, we used linear discriminant analysis to build a classification scheme from our modern data and applied it to Holocene mouse fossils from Two Ledges Chamber, Nevada. We found that the fossil specimens display the digestive fingerprints of owls. Quantification of microscopic digestive fissures thus offers a promising new approach for elucidating the taphonomic history of individual fossil specimens.

Opportunism or aquatic specialization? Evidence of freshwater fish exploitation at Ohalo II- A waterlogged Upper Paleolithic site.

Analysis of ca. 17,000 fish remains recovered from the late Upper Paleolithic/early Epi-Paleolithic (LGM; 23,000 BP) waterlogged site of Ohalo II (Rift Valley, Israel) provides new insights into the role of wetland habitats and the fish inhabiting them during the evolution of economic strategies prior to the agricultural evolution. Of the current 19 native fish species in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), eight species were identified at Ohalo II, belonging to two freshwater families: Cyprinidae (carps) and Cichlidae (St. Peter fish). Employing a large set of quantitative and qualitative criteria (NISP, species richness, diversity, skeletal element representation, fragmentation, color, spatial distribution, etc.), we demonstrate that the inhabitants of Ohalo II used their knowledge of the breeding behavior of different species of fish, for year-round intensive exploitation.

Taphonomical observations on the pygmy hippopotamus site in Aghia Napa, Cyprus.

In this paper data concerning the taphonomy of the Upper Pleistocene site Aghia Napa in Cyprus is presented. The site is dominated by skeletal material belonging to the pygmy Hippopotamus species Phanourios minor, and consists a littoral rockshelter. The fossiliferous assemblage is spread in a total area of about 72 m2 and a significantly large number of specimens were collected, indicating the presence of more than 160 individuals at the site. In this paper, we attempt to identify the causes or mechanisms that led to the accumulation of the endemic hippopotamus remains, focusing also on the palaeo-environmental parameters that might had affected the survivorship of the fossils. The taphonomical analysis is also based on parameters, which provide information concerning skeletal element representation and thus survivorship. The study of the skeletal material shows signs of abrasion, cracking and significant fragmentation which are related to the type, size and shape of the skeletal elements. The bone assemblage is interpreted as a result of transportation of the skeletal material from longer or shorter distances in the surrounding area while the impact of man concerning their accumulation is still under discussion.

Introduced Domestic Animals in the Neolithic and Metal Age of the Philippines: Evidence From Nagsabaran, Northern Luzon

ABSTRACT The faunal remains recovered from the Neolithic and Metal Age Nagsabaran shell midden site in Cagayan, Northern Luzon Philippines were analyzed to gain insights into the arrival of managed animal populations, subsistence patterns, and animal processing during the occupation of the site around 2000 cal BC to within the last 1,500 years. Introduced pigs are present from the earliest recognized phases of settlement, but dogs are only evident from the Late Neolithic/Metal Age onwards. The faunal assemblage is dominated by wild taxa suggesting the reliance on hunting for subsistence even up to the Late Metal Age (1350 BP). There was no intensification in animal husbandry, even in the presence of domestic animals, which is in contrast to other sites in the region dating to the same period and demonstrates regional variability in the resource importance of introduced domestic taxa. Analysis of skeletal element representation in the assemblage revealed that whole carcasses were being brought to the site and processed, and systematic analysis of the butchery marks permitted the description of carcass processing sequences. Over-representation of certain skeletal elements, and the presence of finished tools suggests the on-site manufacture of bone implements during the later phases of site occupation.

Hiding to eat: the role of carnivores in the early Middle Pleistocene from the TD8 level of Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain)

Damage generated by large and small carnivores is common in many Middle Pleistocene sites. However, identifying the predator that produces the faunal accumulations is often a difficult task. In order to recognize the main type of carnivore that acts on a faunal assemblage, a combination of several characteristics should be taken into account: taxonomic and skeletal element representation, age profiles, carnivore damage (location, frequencies and dimensions of tooth-marks, bone breakage and digested bones), degree of fragmentation and frequencies of coprolites. But, adding environmental characteristics and the ethology of non-human predators/scavengers is also important. All these aspects are applied to the faunal assemblage from the TD8 level of the Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Paleomagnetic data combined with ESR and U-series place the TD8 level at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, specifically circa 700 kyr ago. The TD8 level contains a large faunal accumulation primarily composed of ungulate skeletal elements, and to a lesser extent carnivore remains. This assemblage is characterized by an overrepresentation of fallow deer ( Dama vallonetensis), a skeletal profile biased towards cranial remains and limb bones, diversity of ages at death, a high proportion of carnivore damage and tooth-marks of large size, and an absence of human activity. According to these data, the accumulation seems to have been produced primarily by large carnivores, possibly hyenas. This observation does not rule out the possible occasional activity by other carnivores. Nevertheless, the characteristics of the TD8 assemblage do not correlate entirely with those traditionally used to define carnivore dens. In TD8, there are (1) no immature carnivore remains (remains of just one young Mosbach wolf); (2) scarce traces related to the end stages of consumption and some anatomical connexions; (3) few coprolites; (4) high proportion of adult ungulates and; (5) high quantities of whole bones and epiphyses. From this perspective, the TD8 faunal assemblage seems to correspond to a succession of carnivore occupations that allows the development of a suite of features to identify the activities of several species of predators that may have used the cave in different ways and durations. This study aims to emphasize the importance of these analyzes in order to know the behaviour of different non-human predators/scavengers in the European Middle Pleistocene sites.

Zooarchaeological perspectives on the Chinese Early and Late Paleolithic from the Ma’anshan site (Guizhou, South China)

Ma’anshan is a Paleolithic cave site in the Guizhou province of southern China. The total area of the excavations is ca. 48 m 2, and the cultural deposit is divided into two layers representing the Chinese Late Paleolithic and the later part of the Early Paleolithic. The upper layer dates between 19,295 BP and 31,155 BP by AMS technique, and the lower layer is dated to around 53,000 BP by U-Series technique. Thousands of bone fragments were recovered from the two layers. Species abundance, bone surface modifications, skeletal element representation, and mortality patterns were studied in an investigation of assemblage formation history and patterns of prey selection and meat consumption by hominins. Interpretations of the faunal data are strengthened by reference to experimental studies and ethnoarchaeological data. The zooarchaeological data indicate that the later occupants of Ma’anshan Cave hunted mainly medium and small game animals, while the earlier occupants tended to prey upon larger animals. In the later period, hominins also made fuller use of the carcasses. The breadth of the meat diet increased with time, due to the inclusion of quick small animals (bamboo rats and birds) in the later period. The differences between the two faunal assemblages are consistent with the chronologic boundary currently drawn between the Chinese Early and Late Paleolithic ca. 30–27 ka BP, based on technological and other evidence.

Déchiffrer l’histoire taphonomique de l’assemblage osseux du Paléolithique supérieur de la Grotte Zouhrah/El Harhoura 1, maroc

Overlap in the use of caves between hominids and animals has frequently been documented in the prehistoric record. In the Maghreb, Zouhrah Cave, also called El Harhoura 1 (Temara, Morocco), has yielded a few Aterian lithic tools and an abundance of fauna. This faunal assemblage is dominated by gazelles (41% of identified remains) and many carnivore species, including remains of both spotted and striped hyena. Extensive porcupine activity is also evident. The observation of numerous coprolites, in combination with the study of ungulate mortality profiles, skeletal element representation and pattern of bone modifications, all demonstrate that the cave functioned more as a carnivore den than an anthropogenic site even during the Neolithic. Our analysis reveals that the Zouhrah Cave faunal assemblage was created by multiple agents: human, hyena and porcupine. We suggest that this may be a typical signature for Upper Pleistocene cave sites in the Mediterranean region.

Integrating taphonomy into the practice of zooarchaeology in China

With the study of faunal remains (zooarchaeology) emerging as an increasingly prominent component of archaeological studies in China, the importance of studying processes of assemblage formation and preservation (taphonomy) is becoming evident. Remains of animals recovered from an archaeological site are a biased sample of the assemblage that was originally deposited because certain animal parts preserve better than others. Important characteristics of faunal assemblages, such as skeletal element representation and age profiles, can be affected by differential preservation caused by taphonomic agents, both cultural or natural. One primary goal of taphonomic studies is to provide an understanding of differential preservation of bone elements, allowing archaeologists to make more accurate assessments concerning the exploitation of different animal species by past peoples. Recent studies of the faunal assemblages from the Early Paleolithic site of Xujiayao and the Neolithic site of Taosi, both in Shanxi Province, provide examples of the effects that differential preservation can have on archaeological interpretations of skeletal element representation and age profiles, respectively. These examples illustrate how an understanding of taphonomy is critical to the future practice of zooarchaeology in China.

Why are cut mark frequencies in archaeofaunal assemblages so variable? A multivariate analysis

Cut mark frequencies in archaeological faunal assemblages are so variable that their use has recently created some skepticism. The present study analyses this variability using multivariate statistics on a set of 14 variables that involve differential skeletal element representation, fragmentation processes, carnivore ravaging impact, carcass size and tool type. All these variables affect the resulting cut mark frequencies reported in archaeological sites. A large sample of archaeofaunal assemblages has been used for this study. It was concluded that the best estimator of cut mark frequency in any given assemblage is the percentage of cut-marked long bone specimens (probably due to its better preservation than other anatomical areas), which is determined by fragmentation and carnivore ravaging. Carcass size and tool type also play a major role in differences in cut mark frequencies. Fragmentation is also a key variable determining the abundance of cut-marked specimens. It is argued that general cut mark percentages are of limited value, given the number of variables that determine them, and that a more heuristic approach involves quantifying cut marks in a qualitative manner.

Eagle owl (Bubo bubo) pellets from Roman Sagalassos (SW Turkey): distinguishing the prey remains from nest and roost sites

AbstractTwo concentrations of animal bones, almost exclusively from small mammals and wild birds, were found within the destruction debris of a Roman bath complex in Sagalassos (SW Turkey). The overall species spectrum, skeletal element representation, fragmentation and preservation condition of the bones indicate that they represent the prey remains of a large nocturnal avian predator, more precisely the eagle owl (Bubo bubo). Differences in skeletal element representation and in prey species' spectrum show that the two bone clusters derive from pellets deposited near a nest site and a roost site, respectively. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the bones indicate that eagle owls lived in the collapsing bath complex during the second half of the 6th to the beginning of the 7th century AD, before the final abandonment of the town. The MNI of the prey animals found at the nest site, confronted with the daily dietary needs of a female eagle owl and its young, indicates repetitive use of the same place during several years. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta) den use and taphonomy in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya

Hyena taphonomy is of great importance to studies of hominid evolution, since these carnivore taxa have the highest potential both to produce large osseous assemblages and to modify existing hominid-accumulated assemblages throughout the Old World. The three extant hyena species (brown: Parahyaena brunnea; striped: Hyaena hyaena; and spotted: Crocuta crocuta) are all significant bone collectors and modifiers. Spotted hyenas generally have the lowest potential to accumulate osseous remains, and the rate of accumulation varies based upon the type of den. The present research examines the remains accumulated by spotted hyenas in Masai Mara Cave, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. The contents of this den were collected twice by the authors, with an 11-year span interceding. The taphonomic signatures of spotted hyena interaction with bone are presented, including species and skeletal element representation, breakage patterns, tooth marks, tooth puncture, edge polish, and gastric corrosion. Other taphonomic factors examined include rodent gnawing and weathering stage. The cave den assemblage was accumulated at a rate of 30.4 identified specimens and a minimum of 4.1 prey individuals per year. In addition, the osseous remains accumulated by spotted hyenas at multiple burrow dens within the Reserve were examined for taxonomic representation and multiple taphonomic parameters. Rates of accumulation at this type of den tend to be very low, due to differential usage by spotted hyenas and the more ephemeral nature of earthen dens.

Faunal remains from Porc-Epic: Paleoecological and zooarchaeological investigations from a Middle Stone Age site in southeastern Ethiopia

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) sediments of Porc-Epic Cave near Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, have produced a large assemblage of archaeofaunal remains dating to the later periods of the Late Pleistocene. As one of the few MSA faunal assemblages from East Africa subject to detailed analysis, it provides rare insight into the foraging behavior of the early modern humans in this region. The MSA fauna include taxa that were not historically present in the area, with the occurrence of reduncines and alcelaphines indicating widespread grasslands and proximity to a perennial source of water. The faunal analysis examined several lines of evidence, including breakage patterns, surface modification, and skeletal-element representation. By incorporating comparisons with multiple actualistic data sets, the analysis of the assemblage demonstrates that, while the influence of carnivores and other biotic agents was evident, the faunal remains were accumulated primarily by hominid activity. The skeletal-element representation at Porc-Epic includes an abundance of high utility bones, in contrast to the predominance of “head-and-foot” elements documented at other MSA and Middle Paleolithic (MP) sites. The MSA occupants of Porc-Epic effectively exploited a wide range of prey with more emphasis on small- and medium-sized mammals.

The Faunal Assemblages and Taphonomic Signatures of Five Striped Hyaena (hyaena hyaena syriaca) Dens in the Desert of Eastern Jordan

Three of the four extant species of hyaena are well known collectors of faunal remains. It is the make up of these assemblages and the taphonomic signatures that are of interest to palaeoanthropologists, archaeologists and zoologists. The faunal assemblages of five extant dens in three regions of eastern Jordan are reported here. Data recorded from 3,755 bones and bone fragments collected include species scavenged, skeletal element representation and the taphonomic signatures left upon the faunal remains. Of the 3,755 bones and bone fragments collected 24.5% were identifiable to species level and reflect the mammal populations currently inhabiting the region, such as camels (Camelus dromedarius) (35.2%), sheep/goats (Ovis/Capra) (13.3%), donkeys (Equus asinus) (9.9%), canids (9.2%) and combined wild fauna (3%, of which 1.6% are Gazella). Of the 3,755 specimens 34.5% show taphonomic signatures consistent with carnivore activity with 62.5% of these indicative of hyaena gnawing behaviour (i.e. punctate depressions and crenulated edges). Previous criteria to determine hyaena as an accumulating agent will also be re-evaluated.

Prehistoric Use of Ringed Seals: A Zooarchaeological Study from Arctic Canada

This paper presents new data on ringed seal hunting in the Early Palaeoeskimo period (ca. 4000–3500 B.P.) in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Skeletal age schedules, thin sections of ringed seal canine teeth and skeletal element frequency analysis, provides the means to reconstruct specific seal hunting strategies, especially as regards the selection of particular age classes, season of hunt, and locations for hunting. The zooarchaeological data indicate a human predation pattern similar to the winter hunting pattern of polar bears. Most remains are from seals between the skeletal ages of four and seven/ eight – indicating the selection of juvenile and young adult seals from along ice leads and at refrozen cracks. Skeletal element representation allows for the tentative identification of sharing among households.