Skeletal Biologists Research Articles

The various meanings and uses of bone "remodeling" in biological anthropology: A review.

In modern bone biology, the term "remodeling" generally refers to internal bone turnover that creates secondary osteons. However, it is also widely used by skeletal biologists, including biological anthropologists as a catch-all term to refer to different skeletal changes. In this review, we investigated how "remodeling" is used across topics on skeletal biology in biological anthropology to demonstrate potential problems with such pervasive use of a generalized term. Using PubMed and Google Scholar, we selected and reviewed 205 articles that use the term remodeling to describe skeletal processes and have anthropological implications. Nine edited volumes were also reviewed as examples of collaborative work by different experts to demonstrate the diverse and extensive use of the term remodeling. Four general meanings of bone "remodeling" were identified, namely, internal turnover, functional adaptation, fracture repair, and growth remodeling. Additionally, remodeling is also used to refer to a broad array of pathological skeletal changes. Although we initially identified four general meanings of bone remodeling, they are not mutually exclusive and often occur in combination. The term "remodeling" has become an extensively used catch-all term to refer to different processes and outcomes of skeletal changes, which inevitably lead to misunderstanding and a loss of information. Such ambiguity and confusion are potentially problematic as the field of biological anthropology becomes increasingly multidisciplinary. Therefore, we advocate for precise, context-specific definitions and explanations of bone remodeling as it continues to be used across disciplines within and beyond biological anthropology.

The Induction of Bone Formation by the recombinant human transforming growth Factor-β3 : From preclinical studies in Papio ursinus to translational research in Homo sapiens

Skeletal bone defects of the axial or the craniomaxillofacial skeletons still present formidable challenges to skeletal reconstructionists, tissue biologists and modern medicine. In systematic research experiments in the Chacma baboon Papio ursinus our laboratories have shown the previously unreported osteoinductive activity of the three mammalian transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) isoforms. This review discusses the induction of bone formation by the mammalian TGF-βs with particular reference to the substantial and rapid induction of bone by the recombinant hTGF-β3 from the laboratory benches, to pre-clinical studies in heterotopic and orthotopic mandibular sites of Papio ursinus to clinical translation in human patients. Design and MethodsA series of systematic research experiments in Papio ursinus using the hTGF-β3 together with earlier experiments using the -β1 and β2 isoforms are reviewed and re-analyzed molecularly nd morphologically to provide the basic research data for the reported clinical translation in human patients. Results The three mammalian hTGF-β isoforms and notably hTGF-β3 induce rapid and substantial induction of heterotopic bone in intramuscular sites of Papio ursinus. Relatively low doses of hTGF-β1or hTGF-β3 in binary application with hBMP-7 synergize to induce massive corticalized ossicles in the rectus abdominis muscle. In orthotopic mandibular sites, 125 and250 µg doses of hTGF-β3 induce bone formation across large mandibular defects in Papio ursinus with corticalized buccal and lingual plates by day 30, with modeling and maintenance of corticalized bone by 9 to 12 months after implantation of the 250 µg dose in 3 cm mandibular defects Papio ursinus. Discussion hTGF-β3 significantly up-regulates RUNX-2 and Osteocalcin expression on day 15 controlling the differentiation of progenitor stem cells into the osteoblastic lineage. The induction of bone by the hTGF-β3 is via the bone morphogenetic proteins pathway; hTGF-β3 controls theinduction of bone by regulating the expression of BMPs gene and gene products via Noggin expression, eliciting bone induction by up-regulating exogenous BMPs.

Stephen L. Zegura (2 July 1943–26 May 2019)

1 Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. 2 Human Evolution Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. 3 Department of Anthropology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, USA. 4 ARL Division of Biotechnology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA. 5 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA. *Correspondence to: Rebecca Rogers Ackermann, University of Cape Town, Department of Archaeology, Rondebosch 7701, Cape Town, South Africa. E-mail: becky.ackermann@uct.ac.za. KEY WORDS: stephen l. zegura, obituary, anthropology. Human Biology, Winter 2019, v. 91, no. 1. doi: 10.13110/humanbiology91.1.03. Copyright © 2019 Wayne State University Press, Detroit, Michigan 48201 in memoriam Stephen L. Zegura (2 July 1943–26 May 2019) Rebecca Rogers Ackermann,1,2 * Michelle Bezanson,3 Michael Hammer,4 and David Raichlen5 Stephen L. Zegura passed away on 26 May 2019 at the age of 75. Born in San Francisco, California, Zegura was the eldest child of Dragomir Božo Zegura and Adele (June) PerelliMinetti . He earned his BA in anthropology, magna cum laude and with departmental honors, at Stanford University. Even as an undergraduate at Stanford , Zegura was extremely active, brainstorming creativewaystocreateanacademiccareerfocusing onthestudyof humans.Hisenergeticappreciation for Stanford and the inspirational professors he met there was often shared with his students—he was a devoted Cardinal. He then moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he was a WoodrowWilson Fellow, and received his master’s degree and doctorate in human biology in 1971. His PhD research focused on multivariate analyses of variation in native Alaskan (“Eskimo”) crania. Zegura relocated briefly to New York University before moving to the University of Arizona (U of A) in Tucson, where he stayed for the remainder of his career and life. For nearly 40 years Zegura taught biological anthropology, human evolution, andhumangeneticsatUof A.Hewastherecipient of the 2009–2010 Raymond H. Thompson Award in honor of his distinguished service and contributions he made to the School of Anthropology throughout his career. How do you measure the impact of a life, especially for someone as alive—as large as life— as Steve Zegura was? He was brilliant and tough and kind and generous. He was mischievous, with a slightly irreverent sense of humor. He was an extraordinary teacher, with a sharp intellect and a passion for sharing knowledge. And Zegura was an exceptional scholar, presenting theoretically rigorous and well-written contributions, with approximately 50 journal articles to his name. He leaves behind important contributions to knowledgeintheseresearchoutputs ,andhere,wereflect on the arc of these outputs and their relevance then and now. Zegura’s fijirst works focused on measuring skulls and applying statistical methods to diffferentiate them from one another and from other groups (Zegura 1971), a popular pastime in biological /physical anthropology since the discipline developed in the 1800s, and one that has deep links to racial science (Gould 1981; Sussman 2014) . Even at this early stage, Zegura displayed two traits that continued to shine throughout his research career: meticulous attention to detail and a creative ability to synthesize disparate methodologies into a coherent framework for hypothesis testing. While many skeletal biologists were continuing to use older, traditional methods to examine skeletal variation in human populations, Zegura was quick to include linguistic analyses in his studies, FIGURE 1. Stephen Zegura, early 1970s. Photo courtesy of Elizabeth Chesney Zegura. 000 ■ Ackermann et al. examining degrees of correlation between these distinct data sets (Zegura 1975). This early work on Inuit populations led to numerous highly regarded publications. By integrating linguistics and skeletal biology, Zegura was ahead of the curve, and today this work is considered highly creative andsynthetic.Zegurawasalsoanearlycontributor to our understanding of inter- and intraobserver measurementerrorincraniometricstudiesandthe importance of conducting baseline measurement error analyses in order to accurately interpret the biological signifijicance of any results (Utermohle andZegura1982;Utermohleetal.1983),atopicthat still garners considerable attention (e.g., Robinson and Terhune 2017). Ultimately,Zegura’sintereststurnedtobroader questions that highlighted the degree to which racial typology and theoretical approaches had limited the research focus of the study of prehistory in the North American Arctic (Schindler et al. 1985). In this, he was in keeping with the general movement away from typological “racial...

The limited efficacy of 3D models for teaching students sex estimations based on cranial traits: A case for investment in osteology teaching labs

AbstractThe use of 3D digital imaging methods has increased within biological anthropology and medical research. Although digital renderings can be easily shared by researchers or used for student learning modules in osteology, limitations to using 3D models exist, requiring institutions of higher learning to invest in real bones or casts of human skeletal remains for labs. Here, we examine whether 3D digital models are viable proxies for real bones by testing the reliability of scoring sexually dimorphic traits of the human skull, a method commonly used by North American skeletal biologists. Forty‐five crania from Peruvian archaeological sites were used to score four sexually dimorphic cranial traits. These morphological traits were scored by one student learning osteology and an experienced researcher using the actual crania and 3D models of the same individuals. Statistical tests of rater agreement and strength of the agreement were conducted.Results showed lower agreement between the actual and 3D scores for the student and higher agreement among the scores for the experienced researcher. Accurate and cost‐effective 3D models can serve as excellent replacements for real skeletal remains when researchers are experienced. However, 3D models may be a less reliable training tool for students learning osteological methods that require palpating areas of the human cranium. This study makes a strong case for purchasing quality casts or real human skeletal remains of legal/ethical origin for osteology teaching labs, despite their higher costs.

Stephen L. Zegura (2 July 1943–26 May 2019)

Stephen L. Zegura (2 July 1943–26 May 2019) Rebecca Rogers Ackermann1,2, Michelle Bezanson3, Michael Hammer4, and David Raichlen5 Keywords Stephen l, Zegura, Obituary, Anthropology Stephen L. Zegura passed away on 26 May 2019 at the age of 75. Born in San Francisco, California, Zegura was the eldest child of Dragomir Božo Zegura and Adele (June) Perelli-Minetti. He earned his BA in anthropology, magna cum laude and with departmental honors, at Stanford University. Even as an undergraduate at Stanford, Zegura was extremely active, brainstorming creative ways to create an academic career focusing on the study of humans. His energetic appreciation for Stanford and the inspirational professors he met there was often shared with his students—he was a devoted Cardinal. He then moved to the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he was a Woodrow Wilson Fellow, and received his master's degree and doctorate in human biology in 1971. His PhD research focused on multivariate analyses of variation in native Alaskan ("Eskimo") crania. Zegura relocated briefly to New York University before moving to the University of Arizona (U of A) in Tucson, where he stayed for the remainder of his career and life. For nearly 40 years Zegura taught biological anthropology, human evolution, and human genetics at U of A. He was the recipient of the 2009–2010 Raymond H. Thompson Award in honor of his distinguished service and contributions he made to the School of Anthropology throughout his career. How do you measure the impact of a life, especially for someone as alive—as large as life—as Steve Zegura was? He was brilliant and tough and kind and generous. He was mischievous, with a slightly irreverent sense of humor. He was an extraordinary teacher, with a sharp intellect and a passion for sharing knowledge. And Zegura was an exceptional scholar, presenting theoretically rigorous and well-written contributions, with approximately 50 journal articles to his name. He leaves behind important contributions to knowledge in these research outputs, and here, we reflect on the arc of these outputs and their relevance then and now. Zegura's first works focused on measuring skulls and applying statistical methods to differentiate them from one another and from other groups (Zegura 1971), a popular pastime in biological/physical anthropology since the discipline developed in the 1800s, and one that has deep links to racial science (Gould 1981; Sussman 2014) . Even at this early stage, Zegura displayed two traits that continued to shine throughout his research career: meticulous attention to detail and a creative ability to synthesize disparate methodologies into a coherent framework for hypothesis testing. While many skeletal biologists were continuing to use older, traditional methods to examine skeletal variation in human populations, Zegura was quick to include linguistic analyses in his studies, Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 1. Stephen Zegura, early 1970s. Photo courtesy of Elizabeth Chesney Zegura. [End Page 49] Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 2. Stephen Zegura (right) and Fred Hulse at the Arizona State Museum. Photo courtesy of Elizabeth Chesney Zegura. Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 3. Stephen Zegura's lasting impact as a scholar, teacher, and mentor: citation numbers at time of writing (23 September 2019). examining degrees of correlation between these distinct data sets (Zegura 1975). This early work on Inuit populations led to numerous highly regarded publications. By integrating linguistics and skeletal biology, Zegura was ahead of the curve, and today this work is considered highly creative and synthetic. Zegura was also an early contributor to our understanding of inter- and intraobserver measurement error in craniometric studies and the importance of conducting baseline measurement error analyses in order to accurately interpret the biological significance of any results (Utermohle and Zegura 1982; Utermohle et al. 1983), a topic that still garners considerable attention (e.g., Robinson and Terhune 2017). Ultimately, Zegura's interests turned to broader questions that highlighted the degree to which racial typology and theoretical approaches had limited the research focus of the study of prehistory in the North American Arctic (Schindler et al. 1985). In this, he was in keeping with the general movement away from typological "racial" thinking...

LEHs in Medieval Scandinavia: Preliminary Analysis

The development of enamel defects is a topic of considerable interest among skeletal biologists. Linear enamel hypoplasias (LEHs) are commonly studied, as they are generally thought to present stress-induced growth disruptions. The present research uses the frequency of LEH in spatially dispersed but chronologically compact samples to document regional differences in growth stress. Analysis of 1,068 teeth representing the permanent dentition of 921 individuals from six medieval sites in Denmark, Norway, and Greenland showed that the highest frequency of LEH occurred in the mandibular canine (29.13%) followed by the maxillary central incisor (27.51%). Comparison of these results with developmental charts, showing that maxillary incisor and mandibular canine crowns are completely formed between 4 and 7 years of age, indicated that early childhood was likely a stressful time for medieval Scandinavians. Overall, LEHs were more common in maxillary teeth than in mandibular teeth. Although statistically significant differences in LEH frequencies were not found between males and females, locations did differ significantly.

Investigations Into Age-related Changes in the Human Mandible.

While changes in mandibular shape over time are not widely recognized by skeletal biologists, mandibular remodeling and associated changes in gross morphology may result from a number of causes related to mechanical stress such as antemortem tooth loss, changes in bite force, or alterations of masticatory performance. This study investigated the relationship between age-related changes and antemortem tooth loss in adult humans via dry bone measurements. This study examined 10 standard mandibular measurements as well as individual antemortem tooth loss scores using the Eichner Index from a total of 319 female and male individuals with ages ranging from 16 to 99 years. Results indicate that few mandibular measurements exhibited age-related changes, and most were affected by antemortem tooth loss.

CT evaluation of timing for ossification of the medial clavicular epiphysis in a contemporary Western Australian population.

The clavicle is the first bone to ossify in the developing embryo and the last to complete epiphyseal union. It is the latter sustained period of growth that has attracted the interest of skeletal biologists and forensic practitioners alike, who collectively recognize the important opportunity this bone affords to estimate skeletal age across the prenatal to early adult lifespan. Current research is largely directed towards evaluating the applicability of assessing fusion in the medial epiphysis, specifically for determining age of majority in the living. This study aims to contribute further insights, and inform medicolegal practice, by evaluating the Schmeling five-stage system for the assessment of clavicular development in a Western Australian population. We retrospectively evaluated high-resolution multiple detector computed tomography (MDCT) scans of 388 individuals (210 male; 178 female) between 10 and 35 years of age. Scans are viewed in axial and multiplanar reconstructed (MPR) images using OsiriX®. Fusion status is scored according to a five-stage system. Transition analysis is used to calculate age ranges and determine the mean age for transition between an unfused, fusing and fused status. The maximum likelihood estimates (in years) for transition from unfused to fusing is 20.60 (male) and 19.19 (female); transition from fusing to complete fusion is 21.92 (male) and 21.47 (female). Results of the present study confirm the reliability of the assessed method and demonstrate remarkable consistency to data reported for other global populations.

A Comparison of Histomorphometric Data Collection Methods*

Although many variables that skeletal biologists examine have been standardized, the actual techniques used to collect these data from bone thin sections vary. This project compares different methods of obtaining data (relative cortical area values) for histomorphometric research. One visual and three digital methods of histomorphometric data collection are compared: (i) Merz microscopic eyepiece counting reticule, (ii) flatbed scanner, (iii) overlaying multiple images of a thin section, and (iv) digital SLR camera with macro settings. The discussion includes a comparison of usability factors such as cost, time, user-experience, and ease-of-use, which vary for each method. Values from the different methods are compared using ANOVA tests to evaluate inter-method, inter-observer, and intra-observer variability. Intra-observer error was greater for the microscopic method, although the error values are concomitant with experience. We found no statistically significant differences between the four methods examined, but certain caveats must be addressed when these methods are used.

Stafne's defects in two mandibles from archaeological sites in Croatia

Salivary gland inclusions in the mandible are relatively uncommon in recent as well as archaeological populations. This condition is well known to oral surgeons, but less so to anthropologists, osteologists and skeletal biologists. At present a limited number of reports pertaining to this condition in ancient populations are available in anthropological and palaeopathological literature, although scattered reports of cases in recent populations are found in dental journals. This paper analyses the prevalence of Stafne's bone defect in a large composite Croatian archaeological series (n = 4250 mandibles), and reports on two cases in which computerised tomography was performed, in order to draw the attention of anthropologists, osteologists and skeletal biologists to this condition when faced with differential diagnosis of odontogenic lesions, cysts and neoplasms in the area of the angle of the mandible. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Determination Of Subpubic Angle In Egyptian Population

Identification of sex in human skeletal remains is an important component and frequently the starting point of many forensic anthropological investigations. Skeletal biologists had recognized that each population group requires its own specific standards for accurate determination of sex. The pelvis is probably the most accurate bone from which sex can be determined. The subpubic angles show more definitive sex difference indicating the presence of interpopulation variations. This study was carried out to document regional and racial variability of these angles among Egyptians and comparing them with different population groups previously documented. The subpubic angle was measured in the antero-posterior radiographs of 400 adult Egyptians of known sex. The data was analysed using SPSS version 11 for statistical analysis. The results showed that the angles for males ranged from 66 to 126 degrees with a mean ± SD (102.31 ± 12.50) and for females from 96 to 191 degrees with a mean ± SD (143.28 ±15.82). The angles were significantly wider in females than males (P < 0.05). Using the demarking point method, 74% of Egyptian males and 86.5% of Egyptian females could be accurately sexed. In conclusion the subpubic angle is an anthropological characteristic of the Egyptian population that could be considerably used for sex determination with a high degree of accuracy.

An assessment of sex using the skull of black South Africans by discriminant function analysis

The derivation of discriminant function equations for skeletal elements of South African populations continues to be an area of interest to both forensic anthropologists and skeletal biologists alike. The skull of black South Africans has previously been subjected to discriminant function analysis, using four measurements and two indices; however, no equations were derived to address the issue of sex determination. Recently Franklin, Freedman and Milne [2005. Sexual dimorphism and discriminant function sexing in indigenous South African crania. HOMO J. Comp. Hum. Biol. 55, 213–228] used the crania of black South Africans, in a three-dimensional approach, with eight linear measurements to investigate sex determination. This study, although valuable, requires the use of highly technical and expensive morphometric equipment that renders it less feasible in South Africa. In response to this, our study uses traditional anthropometric measurements and equipment to address the question of sex determination from the crania and mandible of blacks. One hundred and twenty non-pathological skulls were randomly selected from the Raymond Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, equally distributed by sex and belonging to individuals whose age at death ranges between 25 and 70 years. Fourteen cranial and six mandibular measurements were subjected to discriminant function analyses and discriminant function equations were derived for sex determination. Average accuracies ranged between 80% and 85% and were on par with that obtained in previous studies. Our study shows that traditional methods provide average accuracies that are comparable to those obtained using more complex techniques.

A modern, documented human skeletal collection from Greece

The University of Athens Human Skeletal Reference Collection has been created recently and consists of 225 skeletons. The Athens Collection is housed at the Department of Animal and Human Physiology, at the University of Athens, Greece. Documentation that includes age, sex, occupation, and cause of death exists for almost all of the remains in the collection. The remains belong to individuals who lived mainly in the second half of the twentieth century and come from cemeteries in the area of Athens. The demographic composition of the collection, and a description of the documentary and supporting data are presented. This recently established modern collection is of high value for palaeopathologists, skeletal biologists and forensic anthropologists. The importance of such collections for teaching and research is discussed.

Young, adult, and old rats have similar changes in mRNA expression of many skeletal genes after fracture despite delayed healing with age

Genes active in fracture healing are not well understood. Because age slows skeletal repair, the change in gene expression between animals of differing ages may illuminate novel pathways important to this healing response. To explore this, 6-, 26-, and 52-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to mid-diaphyseal femoral fracture with intramedullary fixation. The fracture callus was collected at 0, 0.4 (3 days), 1, 2, 4, or 6 weeks after fracture. RNA was extracted and pooled between two animals for each sample. Three samples were done for each time point for each age for a total of 54 Affymetrix U34A GeneChip microarrays. Of the 8700 genes on each array, 3300 were scored as present. Almost all of these genes were affected by femoral fracture with either upregulation or downregulation in the 6 weeks after fracture. Upregulated genes included markers for matrix genes for both cartilage and bone, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, and mast cells. Downregulated genes included genes related to blood cell synthesis. Nearly all genes presently associated with bone metabolism showed the same response to fracture healing regardless of the age of the animal. In conclusion, skeletal fracture led to similar changes in RNA expression for most skeletal genes despite the delay in the formation of bone to bridge the fracture gap in old rats. Defects in the healing of skeletal trauma in older rats may lie in systems not normally studied by skeletal biologists.

Sexual Dimorphism of the Calcaneus of South African Blacks

Forensic anthropology is a rapidly growing field in South Africa and skeletal biologists are often called upon by the police to assist in personal identification from skeletal remains, which are recovered in suspected cases of homicide and suicide and in mass disaster. Measurements of the calcaneus have been shown to be sexually dimorphic in South African whites. Since the validity of discriminant function equations in sex determination is population specific, the aim of the present study was to derive similar equations for the calcanei of the South African blacks. The bones that were used in this study were obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. One hundred and sixteen (116) intact and non-pathological calcanei, consisting of 58 males and 58 females and belonging to individuals whose age at death ranged between 22 and 75 years, were selected by the simple random sampling technique. The measured variables included the maximum length, the load arm length, the dorsal articular facet length, the body height, the maximum height, the cuboidal facet height, the middle breadth, the dorsal articular facet breadth and the maximum breadth. Discriminant function analyses were done using the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) program. All measured parameters of the calcaneus showed significant sexual differences. Length measurements were found to be the most sexually dimorphic. Combinations of variables provided better estimate of sex (79%-86%) than individual variables (64%-79%).

Lingual cortical mandibular defects (Stafne's defect): an anthropological approach based on prehistoric skeletons from the Canary Islands

AbstractWhile posterior lingual mandibular depressions (Stafne's defect) are often discussed in clinical reports, they are rarely the subject of anthropological research. This situation is paradoxical since osteologists and skeletal biologists are in a position to enhance understanding of the trait's aetiology by systematically recording the trait in recent and prehistoric skeletal collections. This report reviews anthropological studies of cortical defects of the mandible, recommends a protocol for recording observations in trait variation, and presents new data for the prevalence of Stafne's defect—lingual cortical defects of the mandibular corpus. Among the Guanches of Tenerife in the Canary Islands (Spain), the prevalence of lingual cortical defects is 3.32% (15/452), males are more frequently affected than females, and there is a tendency for individuals with antemortem tooth loss to display larger lesions than individuals without antemortem loss of teeth. Defects of the left side are somewhat more variable in position than defects located on the right. In comparative perspective, prevalence of lingual cortical defects among the Guanches is high, given the overall 1.07% prevalence reported for archaeological series (Finnegan &amp; Marcsik,1980), but is similar to figures reported for the Avar period sample from Hungary 3.73%. Prospects for the use of lingual cortical defects as non‐metric traits of value in population distance studies remain uncertain since variation in trait expression may have a high environmental component. However, if human osteologists routinely include observations of lingual mandibular cortical defects in their analysis of skeletal collections, the data required to elucidate factors responsible for the trait's cultural, ecological, temporal and geographical patterning will more rapidly become established. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology in South Asia (review)

Reviewed by: God-Apes and Fossil Men. Paleoanthropology in South Asia Lynne A. Schepartz God-Apes and Fossil Men. Paleoanthropology in South Asia. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000. 480 pp.; figures, maps, references, indices. Every paleoanthropologist worth their tenured position knows the intricacies of the archaeological and fossil records for Africa, Europe, Southwest Asia, and China. Yet [End Page 311] how many have more than a passing familiarity with South Asia? With the publication of this work, they can no longer excuse their ignorance. In the preface to this impressive encyclopedic work, Kennedy writes that he is examining the established hypotheses regarding Asian prehistory and population history. Most notably, these are the view that Asia is the cradle of humanity (especially topical now as Chinese researchers reassert claims for the earliest Asian hominid sites); the assignment of different stone tool technologies to specific "races" with ties to living populations; the idea that the origins of the Bronze Age Harappans can be traced to Mesopotamia and the Fertile Crescent; and the notion that a sweeping movement of Indo-European-speaking Aryans coincided with, and probably caused, the decline of Harappan civilization. Underlying all of these ideas is the view that cultural advances and events in South Asia ultimately had their roots elsewhere—and primarily to the west. South Asia was merely the cauldron where diverse peoples and traditions met, clashed, and mingled. Kennedy is one of the leading palaeoanthropologist/ skeletal biologists working in South Asia today, with a research record spanning almost 40 years. With expertise ranging from the early pongids to modern populations, he is eminently qualified to synthesize the palaeoanthropology of the region. The book is strongest where he steps back from the factual coverage and provides his own views on the issues. This is especially true in the latter sections dealing with food-producing populations and the Aryan question. God-Apes and Fossil Men's organization is straightforward and largely chronological. Chapter 1 provides a useful geographical introduction. Chapters 2–4 examine the development of prehistoric, evolutionary, and biological studies in Europe and how those frameworks were imposed on South Asia. While an understanding of these interactions is important, this portion of the book could have been shorter and better integrated. Chapter 5 covers the god-apes of the title: the Rama-, Siva-, Brahma-, and other -pithecines. Kennedy provides a clear discussion of their complex and fluid taxonomy and explains how they weathered the changes in hominid origins research. Only three illustrations are provided, and one of these (Fig. 22) needs an anatomically descriptive caption. More photographs would have enhanced this chapter. The remaining portions of the book detail the human occupation of the region. Geological, archaeological, and faunal information is given first, followed by separate chapters on the human remains, for the earlier time periods. This arrangement has some minor disadvantages because the provenience and burial context are either repeated or given separately from the morphological descriptions. The discussion of the earliest South Asian sites (Chapters 6–8) highlights how little we know from this vast area bridging Africa, Europe, and eastern Asia! While the Potwar Plateau is yielding evidence for some of the earliest stone tool traditions outside Africa, only the Narmada calvaria emerges as a well-documented premodern fossil find. The possibility of the earliest anatomically modern South Asian Homo sapiens coming from sites on Sri Lanka (c. 25–35,000 B.P.) is intriguing but difficult to evaluate without photographs and a more critical examination of the dates and the contexts of the discoveries. The archaeological and human skeletal records expand exponentially for the later time periods, and the richness of South Asian adaptations is apparent. Chapters 9– 11 cover the Holocene hunter-gatherer evidence, and Chapters 12 and 13 describe early farmers and pastoralists. Kennedy rightly highlights the diversity of synchronous developments across the subcontinent, in contrast to earlier accounts that emphasized the role of migration and broad-ranging cultural systems. His thorough examination of the biological and archaeological records reveals little evidence of population replacement, warfare, or aggression. Instead, we are provided a picture of populations who adapted a wide range of technological and economic components...

Racial Variation in the Proximal and Distal Femur: Heritability and Forensic Utility

The femur has been studied successfully by physical anthropologists for many years. Such traits as femoral head diameter and bicondylar width have been examined extensively and are of great value to forensic anthropologists and other skeletal biologists in sex identification. A number of studies over the past decade by the author and his former students have shown marked racial differences in the shape of the proximal femur and in at least one trait of the distal femur--intercondylar notch height. Anterior-posterior (AP) diameter of the proximal femur is much greater among Whites and Blacks than among East Asians and American Indians. Blacks have slightly greater intercondylar notch height than Whites. Other features, such as torsion, also differ between the major geographic racial populations. Current analysis suggests that the East Polynesians fall close to the American Indians and East Asians in the degree of flatness of the proximal femur. One study has tracked the degree of change in flatness during individual development, and finds little change within major populations from the youngest to the oldest individuals. Temporal changes within populations are likewise minimal. Two studies have examined sex differences within populations, which are also found to be very slight. Racial differences, on the other hand, are quite significant, and individuals of admixed ancestry fall intermediate between the two parental populations. Such suggestions of high heritability in the shape of the proximal and distal femur make these traits very useful in assessing ancestry in forensic contexts.

Sex determination from the head of the femur of South African whites and blacks

The current practice whereby criminals dismember the remains of their victims in an attempt to make their identification difficult requires that simple methods of sex determination from fragmented skeletal remains are available to forensic anthropologists and skeletal biologists. The head of the femur is an example of such bone fragments. Identification and demarking points have been derived from the diameters of the head of the femur and used to determine the sex of individuals. It has been shown, however, that the numerical values of these parameters that permit sex identification vary between races. The objectives of the present study were therefore to establish the standard numerical values of the identification and demarking points for sex determination in South African whites and blacks and to see if these standards are different in the two races. A total of 520 femurs of white (160 males and 100 females) and black (160 males and 100 females) South Africans were obtained from the Raymond Dart Skeletal Collection in the Department of Anatomical Sciences of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. The vertical and transverse diameters of the heads of the femurs were measured by means of a stainless steel vernier caliper. Identification and demarking points were derived from the values of these diameters. The head diameter identification point and demarking point were found to be sexually dimorphic in both white and black South Africans. The mean head diameter of the male femur was significantly greater than the mean head diameter of the female femur in both population groups (significant at P<0.001). These values were correspondingly greater in the white than the black population. The numerical values of the male identification and demarking points were higher than the corresponding female values in the two population. In both sexes, these values were greater in the whites than the blacks South Africans. It is concluded that the diameters of the head of the femur and the identification and demarking points that are derived from them are sexually dimorphic in South African white and black populations. However, the numerical values of these sex-determining bone parameters defer between the two population groups. Therefore, it is necessary to determine race-specific standards of these parameters.

Population variation in osteological aging criteria: an example from the pubic symphysis.

A fundamental assumption made by skeletal biologists is that both the pattern and rate of age-related morphological changes observed in modern reference populations are not significantly different than in past populations. In this brief exploration, the composition of a single reference and two independent, known-age, target samples are evaluated for the pubic symphysis. Differences in the timing of age-progressive changes between the reference and target samples are observed, and in particular, females demonstrated a pattern that was fundamentally different from the reference sample. These results serve as a cautionary note for the use of osteological aging criteria and issues of representativeness for modern standards.