Siwalik Research Articles

Landslide susceptibility assessment of the Chure Khola Catchment area of the Siwalik region, Central Nepal

Landslide susceptibility analysis is carried out in the Chure Khola Catchment, between Amlekhganj and the Churia Mai Range of the Bara District, covering area of 20 sq. km. The catchment lies in the Siwalik Hills composing the Siwalik Group of rocks of Middle Miocene to Early Pleistocene age. Owing to the week and fragile geology, the Siwalik Hills are prone to the gully erosion, shallow landslide and debris flow, during the heavy rain storms in monsoon seasons. In the present study, landslide susceptibility assessment was carried out using two methods, rapid field-based assessment and statistical index methods. For the susceptibility mapping of the river bank slopes, field- based method was used. The seven parameters such as slope angle, slope material, reduction to groundwater, effect of drainage, effect of past failure, effect of vegetation cover and effect of land use were used to calculate the factor of safety in the field. The slope areas were classified as highly susceptible (FS<0.7), susceptible (0.7<FS<1), marginally stable (1<FS<1.2) and stable (FS>1.2) categories, and finally, a susceptibility map was prepared. For the total 4.179 sq. km area where rapid field-based assessment was carried out, the areas covered by highly susceptible, susceptible, marginally stable and stable zones are respectively, 21.56%, 22.11%, 17.37% and 38.95%. Among the highly susceptible and susceptible zones identified, 71% sites have experienced recent slope failures. Landslide susceptibility mapping of the whole catchment area was prepared using statistical index method, and considering seven causative parameters such as elevation, slope, slope aspect, curvature, river proximity, stream density and lithology, which were determined and prepared from DEM using Arc GIS. Eighty percent landslides were used as the training sample for the spatial analysis, whereas 20% landslides were used for the validation of the study. The landslide susceptibility map exhibits the areas covered by very high, high, moderate, low and very low susceptibility zones are 47.18%, 25.28%, 19.77%, 3.60% and 4.16%, respectively. Validity of the study was determined using Riemann Sums method. Success Rate Curve shows that 78.04 % of the areas lie under the curve. Evaluating susceptibility in small watershed is important to mitigate shallow landslide related problems and in rehabilitating forest areas in the Churiya Hills of Nepal.

Riverbank filtration: a case study of four sites in the hilly regions of Uttarakhand, India

Riverbank filtration (RBF) schemes based on the filtration of the river water through adjacent aquifers have been successfully implemented in the plains globally. In the mountainous regions, alluvial aquifers are generally narrow and restricted to the riverbanks. The present study assesses the possibility and potential of RBF in the lower Himalayan region for drinking water supply. Production wells (18–30 m deep) were commissioned on the banks of the rivers (1) Alaknanda in Srinagar (546 m a.m.s.l.) and Kaleshwar (Karnaprayag; 778 m a.m.s.l.); (2) East Nayar in Satpuli (576 m a.m.s.l.) and (3) Mandakini in Agastyamuni (783 m a.m.s.l.) in Uttarakhand, India. Waters from the rivers, production wells, and hand pumps were analyzed for major ions, coliforms and stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H). The wells delivered coliform- and turbidity-free water even during monsoon. The proportion of the bank filtrate was site specific and also varied from monsoon to non-monsoon periods. The Satpuli scheme draws almost completely bank filtrate round the year. The other three schemes substantially draw groundwater and its proportion increases in monsoon. In Srinagar, the well water was chemically similar to the ground water but isotopically similar to the river water. The region also has a complex hydrology with paths that deliver river water containing coliforms and even suspended silt up to ~ 0.5 km inland. A severe flooding event during the study period affected the RBF sites in Srinagar and Kaleshwar, thereby indicating the need to make RBF wells flood proof. In general, the study shows RBF to be an effective and sustainable option to supply drinking water in a few regions of lower Himalayas.

THE TECTONIC SETTING OF THE OCTOBER 8 m 2005 EARTHQUAKE IN KASHMIR, NORTH PAKISTAN

On the 8th of October 2005 an earthquake of magnitude 7.6 occurred in northern Pakistan. The earthquake epicenter was located in Pakistan Kashmir, 90 km north of Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. The focal depth was 26 km triggered by a thrust fault striking NW-SE and of 40o dip angle towards the NE. The mean fault slip was estimated as 4 m. The aftershocks epicenters were located northeastwards of the Indus - Kohistan Seismic Zone. The structures that trace the activated fault were distributed along the southwestern limb of the Muzaffarabad anticline and grouped as structures of flexural-slip folding, structures that are correlated to folding and normal faults. The latter may represent overturned segments of the seismic fault on the high-angle limb of the Muzaffarrabad anticline. This anticline is located on the hanging wall of a thrust fault with geometry and kinematics characteristics similar to those of the Indus — Kohistan Seismic Zone. This zone, from the Hazara - Kashmir Syntaxis to the Swat River represents a blind thrust under the metamorphosed rocks of the Lower Himalayas, while in the region of Sub- Himalayas becomes a distinct structure. This thrust fault is linked in depth to the Main Himalaya Thrust through which, the cratonic basement of India is subducting under its sedimentary cover.

Wild Ecology of Spotted Deer (Axis axis)

Chital occur in Nepal throughout the Terai lowland and adjoining Siwalik hills up to an altitude of 1200 meters. It is widely distributed and abundant in Terai protected areas of Nepal. Chital is generally found in densest and dry deciduous forest. The species display a number of preferences which influence its distribution. Four factors are limited for Chital: nee for water, need for shelter, avoidance of high rugged terrain, and the preference for grass as forage. Chital drink water at least once a day and usually twice a day during summer, which under dry conditions would tend to localize the animals around the waterhole.Academic Voices Vol.6 2016: 21-23

Study of radon flux and natural radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th and 40K) in the Main Boundary Thrust region of Garhwal Himalaya

The Himalayan region is subdivided lithologically into four regions in which the junction between the lower Himalaya and Shivalik is known as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). It is well known that the environmental radon concentration depends upon various geological factors including faults, thrust, cracks and the composition of the soil. Radon gas eventually comes out from the fault/thrust zones having radium as its prominent source. Hence, it is important to study the behaviour of emission of radon present inside the earth crust as well as the levels of natural radionuclides in soil. In this study, the levels of natural radionuclides and exhalation rates of radon in the soil of MBT region of Garhwal Himalaya, India, were determined by using gamma ray spectrometer and scintillation detector-based Smart Radon Monitor, respectively. The average activities of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were found 71.9, 88.2 and 893.6 Bq Kg−1, respectively. The measured radon surface flux was found to vary from 13.08 to 1626.4 Bq m−2 h−1 with a mean value of 256.5 Bq m−2 h−1. The measured activity levels were used to assess the doses associated with the contaminated soil.

Assessment of vulnerability zones for ground water pollution using GIS-DRASTIC-EC model: A field-based approach

Assessment of groundwater vulnerability to pollution is an essential pre-requisite for better planning of an area. We present the groundwater vulnerability assessment in parts of the Yamuna Nagar District, Haryana State, India in an area of about \(800 \hbox { km}^{2}\), considered to be a freshwater zone in the foothills of the Siwalik Hill Ranges. Such areas in the Lower Himalayas form good groundwater recharge zones, and should always be free from contamination. But, the administration has been trying to promote industrialization along these foothill zones without actually assessing the environmental consequences such activities may invite in the future. GIS-DRASTIC model has been used with field based data inputs for studying the vulnerability assessment. But, we find that inclusion electrical conductivity (EC) as a model parameter makes it more robust. Therefore, we rename it as GIS-DRASTIC-EC model. The model identifies three vulnerability zones such as low, moderate and high with an areal extent of 5%, 80% and 15%, respectively. On the basis of major chemical parameters alone, the groundwater in the foothill zones apparently looks safe, but analysis with the help of GIS-DRASTIC-EC model gives a better perspective of the groundwater quality in terms of identifying the vulnerable areas.

Soil organic carbon pool changes in relation to slope position and land-use in Indian lower Himalayas

The increase in the atmospheric abundance of CO2 has raised interest in the potential of soils to sequester carbon (C), which inter alia depends on antecedent C level. While inventories of soil organic carbon (SOC) have been developed for different ecosystems at field or global scales, studies at hill-slope level where SOC redistributes by erosion remain scarce. In addition, quantitative information on the variation in SOC stocks and organic matter quality within hill-slopes would allow to make more realistic estimations of the C sequestration potential of landscapes while suggesting improved land management. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of slope position and land-use (grassland versus cropland) on SOC stocks and organic matter quality (proportion of aggregate associated C and labile pools; water extractable, WEOC; hot water soluble, HWC; potassium permanganate oxidizable, KMnO4-C; microbial biomass, MBC). A total of 108 soil samples from the 0–0.15 m layer were collected from 4 slope positions (forested hilltops, middle slope with bare soils, backslopes under grasslands, cropped bottomlands) at nine catenas with 3 replicates per position. The greatest SOC stocks were found at hilltops and backslopes with respectively 10.1 ± 0.64 and 10.1 ± 0.57 Mg C ha−1. SOC stocks decreased by 17% to 8.4 ± 0.65 Mg C ha−1 in bottomlands and by 58% to 4.2 ± 0.26 Mg C ha−1 at backslopes. The soil organic matter from the hilltops showed the greatest proportion of recalcitrant components (62%) followed by the backslope and bottomland positions with ~42%, and middle slope position with 9%. In addition to showing a greater occurrence of labile C fractions, bare and eroded backslope soils were also depleted in water soluble C (WEOC and HWC), KMnO4-C and microbial biomass C. The results showed that there is considerable potential for C sequestration at middle and backslope position through land rehabilitation by either planting trees or vegetation by grass.

Social structure of Gujjar and Bakarwal of Jammu and Kashmir

Gujjars and Bakarwals in Jammu and Kashmir are socially much backward as compared to other communities of state. They are still following the conventional way of living in wood or mud houses with paddy and forest grass roof besides some houses are now made up of brick and stones. They move with their whole family including children and womenduring winters towards warmer areas of lower Himalayas and comeback towards Bungus valley and other places of cattle grazing areas of Kashmir in summer season. Their movement is based on availability of green fodder for their cattle and also to avoid severe cold and snowfall that affect the health, growth, reproduction, milk production, and lactationetc of their livestock which are major source of livelihood. Their customs mainly different from other ethnic groups and general society in various means like, in their habitats, degree of isolation, customs, beliefs, traditions, etc. But they also interact with other communities at the larger scale. They constitute more than 11.9 per cent of the total population of the state as per 2011 Census. In this paper an efforts has been made to study the social profile of Gujjar and Bakarwal on the basis of secondary sources of literatures i.e. population census of India 2001 and 2011, journals, articles, books and reports.

Geospatial Mapping of Soil Organic Carbon Using Regression Kriging and Remote Sensing

Geo-spatial mapping of soil organic carbon using regression kriging was performed for Lalo khala sub-watershed (a part of Solani watershed) located in western Uttar Pradesh, India. Soil organic carbon was predicted using eight predictor variables derived from the advanced space borne thermal emission and reflection radiometer satellite images and digital elevation model. The soil organic carbon was determined in 248 soil samples collected randomly within a 300 m2 grid overlaid on the study area. Out of the eight predictor variables used in simple regression, the normalized difference vegetation index has the maximum correlation with the soil organic carbon (0.64) followed by vegetation temperature condition index (0.60), brightness index (− 0.60), greenness index (0.57) and wetness index (0.51). Standardized principle components of the predictor variables were used in the prediction model so as to address the multicollinearity problem. The regression kriging predicted SOC value ranged from 0.19 to 1.93% with a mean value of 0.64 and standard deviation of 0.29. The SOC values were higher in upper piedmont with moderate forest followed by Siwalik hills while low values were found in the upper alluvial plains. The RMSE of the predicted SOC map was only 0.196 indicating the closeness of predicted values to the observed values. Regression kriging predicted SOC map can be used for spatial agriculture planning and consider as an ideal input for spatially distributed models. The higher efforts for its preparation are justified when quality, spatial distribution and accuracy are considered.

Cytology of Some Grasses from Haryana and Shiwalik Hills

The present paper deals with the male meiosis of 17 species covered under 11 genera of the family Poaceae. Three species: Cynodon dactylon (n=8), Sporobolus diander (n=9) and S. helvolus (n=9) are the new cytotypes from world. Further, five species i.e., Avena fatua, A. sativa, C. dactylon, Lolium temulentum var. temulentum and Phalaris minor show anomalous meiotic behavior with the presence of cytomixis, chromatin bridges, laggards, secondary associations and interbivalent connections which lead to low pollen viability.

Cytological Study in Some Members of Tribe Paniceae (Poaceae) from Haryana and Adjoining Shiwalik Hills

Cytological Study in Some Members of Tribe Paniceae (Poaceae) from Haryana and Adjoining Shiwalik Hills

Timber yielding plants of district Haridwar and adjacent Siwalik Hills

Timber yielding plant of district Haridwar are valuable and have great importance in forestry of Uttranchal state, Raja Ji National Park of Shiwalik Hills have a great varieties in the flora. About 93 families of the tree plants are found in the part and pathri forest of district Haridwar in which more Timer belongs to dicotyledons and some belong to group monocotyledons. Timber commonly used in plywood, Railway sleepers, building construction material and in furnitures. Total 100 plant species belonging to 93 families have been identified and specimen twig of some trees collected and preserved in the Herbarium of M.S.College, Saharanpur.

Improving soil microbiological properties in typic ustochrepts through tree-based cropping system

Anthropogenic interference in natural ecosystem due to intensive agriculture has led to deterioration of soil fertility, productivity and quality. The soil microbiological properties are very important means of assessing soil health and productivity of agricultural ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of tree-based cropping systems on soil microbiological activity in Shiwalik region of lower Himalayas. A study was conducted in a mixed watershed comprising of agroforestry, agrohorticulture and maize-wheat cropping systems. The soil samples were collected from three cropping systems and were analyzed for soil microbiological and basic physicochemical properties. The soil microbiological properties significantly improved in agroforestry and agrihorticultural systems compared to maize-wheat cropping systems. Soil respiration rate and polysaccharide carbon content were also higher in soils under tree-based cropping system (agroforestry and agrihorticulture) than in soils under maize-wheat system. The soil microbiological properties were positively correlated with soil organic carbon, available N and Olsen P. The higher soil microbiological activity under tree-based cropping system as compared with sole agriculture shows the propitious role of trees for the ecosystem functioning in north-west region of India.

Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking Water Quality Parameters of Galore Area in Lower Himalayan Region, India

The work presented an analysis of drinking water samples collected from different ground handpumps at 102 sites in Galore area of Dist. Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India. The samples have been analysed for three physicochemical parameters like, pH, conductivity and iron content. The results showed that pH ranged from 5.9 to 8, conductivity from 120 to 790 μS/cm and iron content from zero to 3.54 mg/l. The measured parameters of only 33 sites water samples were within the WHO standard drinking quality values whereas in the remaining 69 sites water samples beyond the standard values. In general, the present investigation found that the quality parameters were at the level of pollution at almost more than 65% sites.

Geomechanical Challenges: Practices and Innovations

After briefly reviewing the past and the current status in geotechnical engineering, an attempt has been made here to discuss three case studies related to extreme loading conditions like impact and blast loading, extreme wind loading and severe squeezing ground condition in lower Himalaya. These were really very challenging problems and some innovative solutions were provided which were implemented in the field. Subsequently, attempt has also been made to identify some of the more challenging problems which are basically coupled, multi-physics–multi-mechanics problems. To undertake such problems, however, there is a need to widen the scope of geotechnical engineering into a wider area of geo-engineering.

Two new Pliocene hamsters (Cricetidae, Rodentia) from southwestern Tibet (China), and their implications for rodent dispersal ‘into Tibet’

ABSTRACTTwo new species of fossil hamsters (Cricetinae, Cricetidae) collected from early Pliocene sediments (∼4.4 Ma) in the Zanda Basin, southwestern Tibet (China), demonstrate greater past diversity among cricetines in the hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau within the Himalayan Range (beyond the previously known ‘Plesiodipus’ thibetensis from the late Miocene of the Gyirong Basin). The occurrence of Nannocricetus qiui, sp. nov., in the Zanda Basin indicates a dispersal of Nannocricetus from its center of origin in northern and northwestern China and the Mongolian Plateau, into the hinterland of the high-elevation Tibetan Plateau and subsequently into the Himalayan Range. The new taxon Aepyocricetus liuae, gen. et sp. nov., possibly represents a specialized (and endemic) Neogene hamster from the Tibetan Plateau. The dispersal of these hamsters into the high-elevation portions of Tibet during the early Pliocene contrasts with the hypothesized biogeographic shift of several large mammal lineages out of Tibet. The absence of Aepyocricetus and Nannocricetus from adjacent portions of the south slope of the Himalayans (and the Siwalik Hills in India and Pakistan) further implies that the Himalayan range functioned as a dispersal barrier for these small mammals by the early Pliocene.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:9EE286AA-0C00-4041-8F0C-877B35283181.SUPPLEMENTAL DATA—Supplemental materials are available for this article for free at www.tandfonline.com/UJVPCitation for this article: Li, Q., T. A. Stidham, X. Ni, and L. Li. 2018. Two new Pliocene hamsters (Cricetidae, Rodentia) from southwestern Tibet (China), and their implications for rodent dispersal ‘into Tibet’. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2017.1403443.

Study of Cropping Pattern, Crop Ranking and Crop Combination in Somb River Basin at Lower Shiwalik Hills

The studies related to agriculture become more pertinent for those areas, where agriculture contributes more than 80 percent of net income, either through its direct cultivation or through its allied occupations. The aim of present study is to assess the cropping pattern, crop combination, and crop ranking in the Somb river basin using geospatial techniques and secondary data. Here, agriculture is single primary occupation and the basic source of economy. As well as more than 50 percent of total workers are engaged in agriculture and smallholders farmers, who grow crops using low intensity practices of land. Hence, a scientific and systematic study is highly required to assessing and mapping the cropping pattern in the watershed.

Soil organic carbon stock in relation to aggregate size and stability under tree-based cropping systems in Typic Ustochrepts

The growing of tree crops along with the field crops is a common practice in foothills of lower Himalayas with the twin objective of checking soil erosion by water and covering the risk of crop failure due to frequently occurring droughts. A study was conducted to evaluate dry and water stable aggregates for their soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks under different tree-based cropping systems. The treatments consisted of three cropping systems viz. maize-wheat (sole crop), agroforestry and agrohorticulture (tree-based) in the similar soil texture and in 6 year old plantations. The soil samples were obtained from different layers (0–15, 15–30, 30–60, 60–90 and 90–120 cm) and analyzed for SOC. The undisturbed aggregate samples (as big clods) were collected from 0–15 and 15–30 cm soil layer for dry and wet aggregate stability. The data so obtained was analyzed by using CRD factorial deigns at LSD (P ≤ 0.05). The SOC concentration decreased with soil depth, the decrease was higher (89.6%) in soils under maize-wheat than in soils under agrohorticulture (81.3%) and agroforestry (77.8%). The mean SOC concentration decreased with the size of the dry stable aggregates (DSA) and water stable aggregates (WSA). In DSA, the mean SOC concentration was 58.06 and 24.2% higher in large and small macroaggregates than in microaggregates respectively; in WSA it was 295.6 and 226.08% higher in large and small macroaggregates than in microaggregates respectively in surface soil layer. The mean SOC concentration in surface soil was higher in DSA (0.79%) and WSA (0.63%) as compared to bulk soil (0.52%). The SOC concentration and stock being highest in soils under agroforestry resulted in higher SOC concentration in dry as well as WSA.

Sensitivity of WRF Cloud Microphysics to Simulations of a Convective Storm Over the Nepal Himalayas

Background:This paper investigates sensitivity of bulk microphysical parameterization (BMP) schemes within the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model to simulate a convective storm that generally evolves during pre-monsoon season (March – May) across the foothills of the Himalayas.Method:Four mixed-phase BMP schemes (Morrison, Lin, WDM6, and WSM6), which are parameterized with an increasing complexity from single to double moments of particle distribution to represent cloud processes, are used with an explicit convection permitting grid resolution (3 km x 3 km). Experiments are set up to simulate a convective storm that occurred in the late afternoon of 18thMay 2011 and compared with i) Satellite-based tropical rainfall measuring mission (TRMM) 3B42 v7 data, and ii) Ground-based observations at Nagarkot (27.7°N, 85.5°E), Nepal.Result:Our results show that the simulated storm characteristics are not overly sensitive to the chosen BMP schemes. In general, all the BMP schemes produce similar rainfall characteristics and compares reasonably well with the observations across Siwalik Hills and Middle Mountains, which act as a topographic barrier to low level circulations and receive more rain. The schemes, however, show negative bias across central Nepal including the Kathmandu Valley, albeit the magnitude and spatial distribution of bias are different between the schemes. In contrast, upper level total water condensate and cloud fraction show a strong sensitivity to the BMP schemes.Conclusion:Overall, the Morrison scheme, in addition to warm clouds which also predict double moment distribution of all hydrometeors in the cold-cloud processes, a dominant cloud forming process in the Himalayas, accurately represents the mechanism and outperforms the simplified schemes based on root mean square error (RMSE) analysis.

Commonly used Medicinal Plants in Tehsil Bangana, District Una, Himachal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh is located in Western Himalaya, is a store house of medicinal plants. Most of the population lives in villages and use various plants for their basic needs such as food, fodder, wood and to treat various diseases. The present study is carried out in 7 villages of district Una of Himachal Pradesh located in the range of Shivalik Hills of outer Himalaya, regarding the ethno medicinal plants used by the locals in their own traditional health system. This study reveals the status of ethno-medicinal plants and their importance preserved by locals of Distt Una. The paper encompasses the 43 medicinal plants. These plants were collected from different villages of Una Distt and information was collected from locals peoples.