Site Redevelopment Research Articles

Brownfields to Healthfields: A Retrospective Ripple Effect Mapping Evaluation in Three Rural Communities

The environments in which we live influence our health behaviors and outcomes. The redevelopment of brownfields sites to health-promoting land uses may provide an array of benefits to individuals and communities, but these impacts can be particularly difficult to assess in rural communities using traditional evaluation approaches. Using Ripple Effects Mapping, we evaluated three rural brownfields redevelopment sites across Appalachian portions of EPA Region 3. Adult members of these communities participated in guided reflection on the redevelopment and subsequent impacts. Data were constructed as digital mind maps, then coded to the Community Capitals Framework by two authors coding independently. Member checking was conducted with representative workshop participants. Commonly cited impacts were site improvements, facilitation of social and physical activity, and engaging community identity. The most discussed community capitals were social and built; the least discussed capitals were natural and political. Future directions for brownfield redevelopment evaluation are discussed.

Navigating the Maze of Urban Voids: A Hybrid MCDM Approach for Site Selection for Urban Poor in PCMC, India

The rapid pace of migration has incurred a higher demand and a lower supply ratio of economically weaker section (EWS) housing, prompting the emergence of illegal squatters across several Indian cities, especially on public reservation lands, turning them into urban voids. Numerous government initiatives, at the central, state, and urban local body levels, have been attempted to provide housing to the urban poor living in slums, predominantly through in-situ redevelopment. However, the efforts lagged for several reasons. One of the major reasons is the lack of a methodical process for the logical selection of available slum sites for rehabilitation or redevelopment. This creates a challenging situation for the decision makers to prioritize these sites, as currently it is based on the notification date of slums and is majorly driven by political will. Hence, this research attempted to formulate a prioritization model for the selection of slum sites in the PCMC area by evaluating them with parameters derived from expert opinion. The Hybrid Multiple Attribute Decision Making (MADM) model, using weights derived from Shannon’s entropy, and ranking performed using the TOPSIS method were considered for prioritization of the slum sites. This unbiased scientific process will guide the decision makers in the appropriate allocation of available resources to uplift the urban poor living in slums, which is crucial for the sustainable urban development of India.

Putting sufficiency into practice: Transdisciplinary sufficiency research in urban development: The Hafen-Ost real-world laboratory in Flensburg, Germany

The evaluation of real-world laboratories is crucial. Since not only successes but failures and obstacles can provide information about the conditions for transformation, it is appropriate to also examine difficulties in a methodologically guided way.The port in Flensburg, Germany, has shaped the city’s identity. Globalisation and deindustrialisation have seen the northern German port on the Baltic Sea lose its economic importance. The city of Flensburg is currently planning to build a new district on a huge redevelopment site. The idea is to create a district with an infrastructure that promotes and enables lifestyles that use resources and land sustainably. The real-world laboratory on sufficiency-oriented urban development described and evaluated here aimed to better understand the process of implementing sufficiency policies and their effects, and to develop the knowledge and skills needed for sufficiency-oriented policymaking. The real-world laboratory is a collaborative project between members of the city administration and academics from the Europa-Universität Flensburg. The evaluation shows both the difficulties of putting sufficiency policies into practice and their potential for sustainability.

Industrial by-products-derived binders for in-situ remediation of high Pb content pyrite ash: Synergistic use of ground granulated blast furnace slag and steel slag to achieve efficient Pb retention and CO2 mitigation

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is a cost-effective and conventional binder that is widely adopted in brownfield site remediation and redevelopment. However, the substantial carbon dioxide emission during OPC production and the concerns about its undesirable retention capacity for potentially toxic elements strain this strategy. To tackle this objective, we herein tailored four alternative binders (calcium aluminate cement, OPC-activated ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), white-steel-slag activated GGBFS, and alkaline-activated GGBFS) for facilitating immobilization of high Pb content pyrite ash, with the perspectives of enhancing Pb retention and mitigating anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. The characterizations revealed that the incorporation of white steel slag efficiently benefits the activity of GGBFS, herein facilitating the hydration products (mainly ettringite and calcium silicate hydrates) precipitation and Pb immobilization. Further, we quantified the cradle-to-gate carbon footprint and cost analysis attributed to each binder-Pb contaminants system, finding that the application of these alternative binders could be pivotal in the envisaged carbon-neutral world if the growth of the OPC-free roadmap continues. The findings suggest that the synergistic use of recycled white steel slag and GGBFS can be proposed as a profitable and sustainable OPC-free candidate to facilitate the management of lead-contaminated brownfield sites. The overall results underscore the potential immobilization mechanisms of Pb in multiple OPC-free/substitution binder systems and highlight the urgent need to bridge the zero-emission insights to sustainable in-situ solidification/stabilization technologies.

Investigating mercury in road sediment in Michigan City, Indiana: A new type of environmental pollution record

Mercury (Hg) is well recognized as a toxic heavy metal known to detrimentally impact the health of humans and wildlife. A common source of Hg pollution is coal combustion emissions associated with energy generation. This study takes the novel approach of using road sediment to assess the presence, distribution, and concentrations of Hg in the environment. Here, the spatial distribution of Hg in road sediment is also evaluated relative to the Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO) Generating Station in Michigan City, Indiana, U.S.—a coal-burning power plant. Given that NIPSCO plans to decommission the plant by 2028, this data provides a baseline for evaluating Hg concentrations in the local environment and for future assessment of environmental recovery from legacy pollution and/or impacts of pollution redistribution associated with site redevelopment. Our data reveal an average concentration of 6.8 (µg/kg) of Hg and a range from 1.5 µg/kg to 28.5 µg/kg in road sediment samples (n = 42). Across the ∼53 km2 study area, the overall distribution of Hg is patchy and irregular spatially, however, higher concentrations are more proximal to the coal plant and are generally consistent with prevailing wind directions. Other significant Hg inputs are present in the region although, specifically two major areas of steel manufacturing located to the west of Michigan City and broadening the scope of sampling may be an essential next step. However, this investigation demonstrates that road sediment may be an effective medium for investigating Hg pollution in the environment globally.

Progression mechanism of urban food desert and categorization of high‐risk blocks through the analysis of changes in food intake demand—A case study of Azabu and Takanawa districts of Minato‐ku, Tokyo, where the prices of grocery stores is rising due to redevelopment

AbstractWe analyzed the mechanism of urban food desert expansion based on data at the block level. According to the food demand curve, elasticity was high, and the nutritional food dietary decreased as store prices increased. The store prices within 500 m of the redevelopment site would tend to increase because luxury supermarkets would dominate, while over 500 m they would often tend to decrease because new non‐luxury supermarkets would compete for opening. There are two types of blocks with a high risk of food desert: A block surrounded by multiple redevelopments or a block whose store price has gone up considerably.

Application of a novel multi-criteria decision analysis approach for evaluating the sustainability of contaminated site management: An example from China

The performance of contaminated site management in terms of its sustainability can be inherently uncertain, considering that this performance depends not only on individual site characteristics and variability, but also on integrated (and potentially long-term) environmental, social, economic and technical impacts. The present study proposes a combination weights-based TOPSIS model (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution), following a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach, to quantitatively analyze the most influential measures and indices over the entire life cycle of contaminated site management (from site investigation to land reuse) in China. Results indicate that the sustainability performance of different sites varies widely due to differences in the best management practices (BMPs) implemented. Environmental dimensions in strategy design and remediation implementation processes contribute most to the overall sustainability performance when whole life-cycle management is considered, with social dimensions relatively under-emphasised. Based on a sensitivity analysis of the TOPSIS method, random variations of indices' weights did not result in significant alteration of the modelled sustainability performance of the evaluated sites, which indicates that the method provides a relatively robust approach. The MCDA approach developed enables stakeholders to adopt optimal BMPs for risk control and to enhance sustainability performance in contaminated site management, covering the whole life cycle of site remediation and redevelopment, although further work is required to determine its international applicability.

Measured Effects of Anthropogenic Development on Vertebrate Wildlife Diversity

A major driver of the declining biodiversity is landcover change leading to loss of habitat. Many studies have estimated large-scale declines in biodiversity, but loss of biodiversity at a local scale due to the immediate effects of development has been poorly studied. California, in particular, is a biodiversity hotspot and has rapidly developed; thus, it is important to understand the effects of development on wildlife in the State. Here, we conducted reconnaissance surveys—a type of survey often used by consulting biologists in support of environmental review of proposed projects—to measure changes in the relative abundance and richness of vertebrate species in response to urban development. We completed 2 reconnaissance surveys at each of 52 control sites that remained undeveloped at the times of both surveys, and at each of 26 impact sites that had been developed by the time of the second survey. We completed the surveys as part of a before–after, control–impact (BACI) experimental design. Our main interest was the interaction effect between the before–after phases and the control–impact treatment levels, or the impact of development. After controlling for survey duration, we also tested for the effects of the number of years intervening the surveys in the before and after phases, project area size, latitude, degree of connectedness to adjacent open space, and whether the site was a redevelopment site, infill, or not infill. After development, the average number of vertebrate wildlife species we detected declined by 48% within the project area, and by 66% within the bounds of the project sites. Further, the average number of vertebrate animals we counted declined by 90% within the project area, and 89% within the bounds of the project sites. Development impacts measured by the mean number of species detected per survey were greatest for amphibians (−100%), followed by mammals (−86%), grassland birds (−75%), raptors (−53%), special-status species (−49%), all birds as a group (−48%), non-native birds (−44%), and synanthropic birds (−28%). Our results indicated that urban development substantially reduced vertebrate species richness and numerical abundance, even after richness and abundance had likely already been depleted by the cumulative effects of loss, fragmentation, and degradation of habitat in the urbanizing environment. Monitoring is needed in and around urbanizing areas to measure the cumulative effects of urbanization, and so are conservation measures to mitigate the effects of urbanization.

Reaping the premium in urban redevelopment

IntroductionThis paper investigates new new-built premium in urban redevelopments. Constructing new homes on urban redevelopment sites entails additional investments in reshaped lay-out, refurbished infrastructure, and upgraded outdoor areas. These improvements are expected to yield new-build premiums when the new units are put on the market, with ‘premium’ defined as the extra price that a developer asks for, compared to similar units in the second-hand market, in nearby locations. We askDo urban redevelopment schemes create extra new-build premiums? Does the organisation of redevelopments affect the size of the premium and who harvests it? Method and dataIn focus here are redevelopment schemes in Oslo, Norway, 2002–2015. It distinguishes between four types of developments: greyfield, brownfield and two kinds of infill. This distinction is applied to compare new-build premiums in various redevelopments. As the value-added from upgraded redevelopment may spill over to adjacent neighbourhoods, we also analyse whether such neighbourhoods experience hikes in house-prices. Our dataset consists of sales transactions from approx. 90,000 second-hand house sales and 19,000 new house sales. Results/findingsThe premium for new-builds in relation to second-hand sales varies significantly among the types of development. Units in small infill developments entail significantly higher new-built premiums than units in large brownfield- or greyfield redevelopments. Moreover, some schemes show a negative new-build premium. Examination of existing houses nearby shows a hike in prices in the time-span in question. We conclude that the new-build premium is low, and that developers fail to harvest full new-build premiums in urban redevelopment schemes. DiscussionIn interpreting our findings, we revisit ‘rent-gap theory’ and its emphasis on attracting investment to rundown central areas. Concurrence in scale, design and time helps to explain the differences across types of redevelopments, and why what might be expected to be new-build premiums instead raise prices in existing neighbouring areas.

Circular Process for Sustainable On-Site Management of Valuable Materials in the Rehabilitation of the Built Heritage

Heritage rehabilitation can be a sustainable operation when it succeeds in conveying the intangible, historical, artistic, and symbolic value of the building and, at the same time, to ensure the preservation of soil and material resources. The sustainability of the operation must cover the entire life cycle of the building, starting with the management of materials on the construction site, which allows for an increase in its durability while safeguarding its residual performance. This paper, therefore, outlines a process for the sustainable management of materials at the building redevelopment site using the history of the building and the life cycles of related materials. In particular, the following are explored: residual performance of historical and coeval materials, their endogenous and exogenous reuse of materials in the redevelopment project, the traceability aimed at controlling the supply chain, and the material/component identity card. The latter evolves dynamically, providing useful information for carrying out environmental assessments and monitoring the building’s maintenance cycle. The process is applied to a case study involving the redevelopment of the historical built heritage following the 2009 earthquake that struck the city of L’Aquila and neighbouring territories. The case study demonstrated the validity of the method and at the same time made it possible to introduce an innovative process in the territory, raising awareness among those working in the sector of the value of choices that have environmental and economic advantages.

Carbon Reduction Design Tool (CReDiT) for excavation and clean cover remediation

Meeting the 2050 net-zero carbon emission target requires all sectors of civil engineering to include the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (‘carbon emissions’) in their designs. This paper presents the development and early achievements of the Carbon Reduction Design Tool (CReDiT) for excavation and clean cover remediation of brownfield sites. The tool was developed for this remediation technique, as it is the dominant remediation method used on residential redevelopment sites within the UK. CReDiT determines carbon emissions from the complex processes involved in this form of remediation – for example, excavation of soil, use of raw materials, transport of materials, waste and recycling and reuse of materials. The application of the tool, to evaluate carbon emissions from excavation and cover remediation options applied to a former landfill site, is presented. In this case study, CReDiT quantifies carbon emissions and material volumes for proposed design options. It also demonstrates the carbon savings that can be made by the effective reuse of material on-site and the contribution of waste materials to carbon emissions. Additional carbon savings through the reuse or recycling of carbon rich or valuable materials are also calculated. The use of CReDiT has led to a rethink of remediation excavation and cover design. Excavated/waste materials are re-evaluated as a resource, material reuse options are assessed and carbon reduction is included in the design process. This leads to more sustainable remediation solutions.

Not all brownfields are equal: A typological assessment reveals hidden green space in the city

While the role of urban green space in mitigating environmental hazards and enhancing urban resilience is widely recognised, the current or potential contribution of brownfield land to urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services has been largely overlooked by planning legislation. The perception of brownfield as low value spaces has instead driven a focus on brownfield-first redevelopment, and thus, this dynamic resource is quickly being lost. This research, based on GIS and remote sensing data, develops a novel hierarchical brownfield classification methodology to understand the nature and distribution of brownfield, using k-means clustering of several physical attributes, which can be used for a range of objectives and is widely applicable to post-industrial cities. Application of the methodology to the case study, Greater Manchester, UK, produced a typology of twenty-six brownfield types with distinct characteristics and differing spatial patterns across the city. Land cover analysis reveals that over half (51%) of brownfield land is vegetated (comprising 27% trees and shrubs, 24% grass and herbaceous vegetation), highlighting the significant ‘hidden’ green space present on brownfield. Brownfield sites traditionally perceived as difficult to develop (e.g. those with uneven topography, irregular shapes, or a water body), are particularly highly vegetated. Predominantly pervious types are widely distributed across the conurbation, including in built-up areas, which are a principal target for redevelopment, and thus highly vegetated brownfields are likely being lost undetected. Brownfield land is evidently a valuable dynamic resource in post-industrial cities and redevelopment should be planned at the city-scale to ensure careful strategic selection of sites for redevelopment, greening, or interim use based upon their characteristics and location.

When the Lights Go Out: Public Sector Management of Abandoned Sport Facilities

This paper explores how local governments have addressed abandonment of a high-dollar investment: publicly funded sport facilities. The issue of abandoned professional sport facilities is becoming more ubiquitous as teams seek new, more modern, state-of-the-art venues to maximize operational revenues. This creates a scenario where the average lifespan of a professional sport facility is only 27 years. Using a comparative case study analysis, this research examines how municipalities have approached the redevelopment of abandoned stadium infrastructure in Detroit, Houston, and St. Louis. Successful outcomes related to the redevelopment of abandoned stadiums in Detroit have seen public and private stakeholders take advantage of their unique assets in public-private partnerships. However, abandoned stadium infrastructure in Houston and St. Louis have remained idle for years as local governments failed to secure private investment to aid with redevelopment efforts and/or created additional bureaucratic red tape that limits the prospects for site redevelopment.

When “port-out – city-in” becomes a strategy: is the port–city interface conflict in Amsterdam an observation or a self-fulfilling prophecy?

Within the majority of port city literature, the evolution of port cities is still explained as an inevitable or ‘logical’ process whereby maritime land-uses gradually migrate from city centres towards waterfront zones with deep water access. Between the 1950s and 2000s, obsolete port areas around the world have surely become waterfront redevelopment sites, often with high-end urban property development, signified by iconic architectural projects. As observed and described in the port city of Amsterdam, the financial-economic success of this ‘port-out, city-in’ process has led to land-use conflict, observed also in other port cities around the world. This paper questions, however, whether the land-use conflict in Amsterdam, observed ten years ago, is just an observation, or part of a self-fulfilling prophecy. To answer this question, we engage in a meta-discussion about the port–city interface model itself. By performing an in-depth case study in the 2018–2019 period, we reconstructed the evolution of a fierce land-use conflict in the port–city interface of Amsterdam. We conclude that the key causal mechanism was context-specific, but also that generic ‘port-out, city-in’ discourse has been an important contingent condition.

A New Earth Observation Service Based on Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Time Series for the Monitoring of Redevelopment Sites in Wallonia, Belgium

Urban planning is a challenge, especially when it comes to limiting land take. In former industrial regions such as Wallonia, the presence of a large number of brownfields, here called “redevelopment sites”, opens up new opportunities for sustainable urban planning through their revalorization. The Walloon authorities are currently managing an inventory of more than 2200 sites, which requires a significant amount of time and resources to update. In this context, the Sentinel satellites and the Terrascope platform, the Sentinel Collaborative Ground Segment for Belgium, enabled us to deploy SARSAR, an Earth observation service used for the automated monitoring of redevelopment sites that generates regular and automatic change reports that are directly usable by the Walloon authorities. In this paper, we present the methodological aspects and implementation details of the service, which combines two well-known and robust methods: the Pruned Exact Linear Time method for change point detection and threshold-based classification, which assigns the detected changes to three different classes (vegetation, building and soil). The overall accuracy of the system is in the range of 70–90%, depending on the different methods and classes considered. Some remarks on the advantages and possible drawbacks of this approach are also provided.

Assessing transformative change of infrastructures in urban area redevelopments

Urban redevelopments create opportunities for experimenting with innovative infrastructural solutions towards transformative urban change. Novel solutions such as decentralised infrastructure systems can become essential strategies for helping cities meet multiple sustainability outcomes. However, achieving infrastructural change is a tremendous challenge given the obduracy of these large and complex systems. Assessing and monitoring ongoing infrastructure shift, transformative urban systems needs to provide a better understating of how to account for systemic change. This paper addresses the challenge of assessing and monitoring urban transformative change in a forward-looking and systematic way. A conceptual assessment framework is developed, which identifies key critical dimensions necessary to assess the transformative change potential in the context of urban redevelopment areas. These include the shaping of new expectations/visions, the establishment of new social networks, the creation of learning processes, institutional alignment, and the establishment of new modes of governance. The conceptual framework is applied in a case study of selected urban redevelopment sites in New Delhi, India. The framework was found useful which gaining a differentiated understanding of the transformation process and identifying the strengths and weaknesses within the urban redevelopment niche that can potentially support or obstruct the transition process.

A win-win situation? Urban regeneration and the paradox of homeowner displacement

This paper examines urban regeneration outcomes for homeowners through a mixed-methods analysis of population change in six redevelopment sites. Israel's national urban regeneration policy presents itself as a ‘win-win’ mechanism, claiming that it mitigates displacement. This claim is tested and discussed through the theoretical lens of state-led gentrification and displacement. The Israeli program relies on contractual agreements between private homeowners and developers and provides homeowners with newly built high-rise condominium units. Consequently, homeowners can choose how to capitalize on their new property – whether to inhabit, let or sell. We argue that their choice reflects the preferences and varied capabilities of owners. While homeowners are relatively protected from direct displacement, the variance in owner capabilities may lead to economic pressures that chiefly impact vulnerable low-income owners. We suggest that the Israeli model of sharing the benefits from housing commodification glosses over the capability gap and frames potential displacement pressures as market choice features.

A sustainability assessment-based methodology for the prioritization of contaminated site risk management options.

Contaminated site management is a multiple objective decision-making that generally involves different factors, such as performance of technology, environmental effects, cost, and social influence. In this study, we developed a sustainability assessment-based methodology for the prioritization of contaminated site risk management options. We integrate remediation sustainable assessment and redevelopment sustainable assessment in one framework and allow the optimization of indicators. The framework started with the definition of site management type, then investigating site characterization, screening indicators, quantifying of indicator, selecting assessment model, selecting primary options, assessment with uncertainty analysis, and determining of preferred options. To demonstrate the utility of the framework, results are presented in a contaminate site in southwest China for two risk management decisions, site remediation and site redevelopment. We used different approaches to evaluate the stability and robustness of assessment results, including Monte Carlo simulation, scenario analysis, and sensitivity analysis. The demonstration showed that attention has to be paid to the proper description of the site, the principles of the procedure, and the decision criteria.

Trade-Offs between Urban Green Space and Densification: Balancing Outdoor Thermal Comfort, Mobility, and Housing Demand

Urban green spaces reduce elevated urban temperature through evaporative cooling and shading and are thus promoted as nature-based solutions to enhance urban climates. However, in growing cities, the supply of urban green space often conflicts with increasing housing demand. This study investigates the interplay of densification and the availability of green space and its impact on human heat stress in summer. For the case of an open-midrise (local climate zone 5) urban redevelopment site in Munich, eight densification scenarios were elaborated with city planners and evaluated by microscale simulations in ENVI-met. The chosen scenarios consider varying building heights, different types of densification, amount of vegetation and parking space regulations. The preservation of existing trees has the greatest impact on the physical equivalent temperature (PET). Construction of underground car parking results in the removal of the tree population. Loss of all the existing trees due to parking space consumption leads to an average daytime PET increase of 5°C compared to the current situation. If the parking space requirement is halved, the increase in PET can be reduced to 1.3°C–1.7°C in all scenarios. The addition of buildings leads to a higher gain in living space than the addition of floors, but night-time thermal comfort is affected by poor ventilation if fresh air circulation is blocked. The protection of mature trees in urban redevelopment strategies will become more relevant in the changing climate. Alternative mobility strategies could help to reduce trade-offs between densification and urban greening.<p>Urban green spaces reduce outdoor temperatures through evaporative cooling and shading and are thus promoted as nature based solutions to enhance urban climates. However, in growing cities, supply of urban green space often conflicts with increasing housing demand. This study investigates the interplay of densification and availability of green and its impact on outdoor human thermal comfort. For the case of an open-midrise (LCZ 5) urban redevelopment site in Munich, eight densification scenarios were elaborated with city planners and evaluated by microclimate modelling in ENVI-met. The chosen scenarios consider varying building heights, different types of densification, vegetation amount and parking space regulations. The greatest impact on physical equivalent temperature (PET) has the preservation of existing trees. Construction of underground car parking results in the removal of the tree population. Loss of all existing trees due to parking space consumption leads to an average daytime increase of 5 °C PET compared to the current situation. If the parking space requirement is halved, the increase in PET can be reduced to 1.3 to 1.7 °C in all scenarios. Adding buildings leads to a higher gain in living space than adding floors, yet night time thermal comfort is affected by poor ventilation if fresh air circulation is blocked. Protecting mature trees in urban redevelopment strategies will gain more relevance in changing climate. Alternative mobility strategies can help to reduce trade-offs between mobility, densification and microclimate.</p>

Threshold effects of incremental redevelopment of an industrial property on a residential neighbourhood

The threshold effect refers to the presence of a tipping point at which incremental action triggers an abrupt change. It is ubiquitous in both the environment and society. In this study, we identify the threshold effects of the continuous renewal of an industrial area on nearby housing in Hong Kong. Rather than using hedonic or difference-in-differences models, threshold regression models are used to detect the changes in the price-distance gradient of apartments near an industrial redevelopment project over two decades. We found a significant change in the value of apartments located in close proximity to the redevelopment site after a critical mass of new office space was built. Differential responses are also found across geography and for different building types. A possible explanation for these effects is the gentrification of the entire neighborhood. It is likely that a new spatial mix of blue- and white-collar households emerged in the surrounding neighborhoods along with the development of industrial property. Different building features appeal to different housing classes, resulting in dissimilar price-distance responses of the apartments. Integrative spatial design and good connectivity of industrial redevelopment with its neighborhood can possibly generate a wider geographical spread of its positive spillover in urban regeneration.