Sink-source Dynamics Research Articles

Building bushfire resilience in horticultural production systems: important insights from Australia

Extreme bushfire is having considerable negative effects on the sustainability of agricultural landscapes in various parts of the world. Fire-induced damages to tree crops have led to significant effects on perennial horticultural production systems with associated lower returns and decline in economic sustainability. Australia is one of the most fire-prone countries in the world and contributes to global horticultural production with production forecast level estimated at $18.2 billion in 2023–24, according to the Australian Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Bushfire-related damages to horticultural production may however threaten this promising potential. This review provides a commentary on the history, scale and impacts of extreme bushfires in Australia. The effects of bushfire on horticulture, including soil nutrient availability, fruit tree physiology and carbohydrate sink-source dynamics are discussed. Given the increasing frequency and severity of bushfires as a result of climate change, the negative effects of heat and fire damage on fruit tree production are expected to increase. Based on the Australian experience with bushfires in horticultural landscapes, this review outlines proactive responses for minimising bushfire impacts on horticultural production in temperate regions, with particular reference to the Rosaceae family. Adaptation strategies must be planned and set up before orchard establishment and should include defensible space or safety zones around the orchard, as well as internal and external fuel reduction strategies for the orchard lifespan.

The role of climate, vegetation, and soil factors on carbon fluxes in Chinese drylands.

Drylands dominate the trend and variability of the land carbon (C) sink. A better understanding of the implications of climate-induced changes in the drylands for C sink-source dynamics is urgently needed. The effect of climate on ecosystem C fluxes (gross primary productivity (GPP), ecosystem respiration (ER), and net ecosystem productivity (NEP)) in drylands has been extensively explored, but the roles of other concurrently changing factors, such as vegetation conditions and nutrient availability, remain unclear. We used eddy-covariance C-flux measurements from 45 ecosystems with concurrent information on climate (mean annual temperature (MAT) and mean annual precipitation (MAP)), soil (soil moisture (SM) and soil total nitrogen content (soil N)), and vegetation (leaf area index (LAI) and leaf nitrogen content (LNC)) factors to assess their roles in C fluxes. The results showed that the drylands in China were weak C sinks. GPP and ER were positively correlated with MAP, while they were negatively correlated with MAT. NEP first decreased and then increased with increasing MAT and MAP, and 6.6 °C and 207mm were the boundaries for the NEP response to MAT and MAP, respectively. SM, soil N, LAI, and MAP were the main factors affecting GPP and ER. However, SM and LNC had the most important influence on NEP. Compared with climate and vegetation factors, soil factors (SM and soil N) had a greater impact on C fluxes in the drylands. Climate factors mainly affected C fluxes by regulating vegetation and soil factors. To accurately estimate the global C balance and predict the response of ecosystems to environmental change, it is necessary to fully consider the discrepant effects of climate, vegetation, and soil factors on C fluxes, as well as the cascade relationships between different factors.

Manipulating phloem transport affects wood formation but not local nonstructural carbon reserves in an evergreen conifer.

How variations in carbon supply affect wood formation remains poorly understood in particular in mature forest trees. To elucidate how carbon supply affects carbon allocation and wood formation, we attempted to manipulate carbon supply to the cambial region by phloem girdling and compression during the mid- and late-growing season and measured effects on structural development, CO2 efflux and nonstructural carbon reserves in stems of mature white pines. Wood formation and stem CO2 efflux varied with a location relative to treatment (i.e., above or below the restriction). We observed up to twice as many tracheids formed above versus below the treatment after the phloem transport manipulation, whereas the cell-wall area decreased only slightly below the treatments, and cell size did not change relative to the control. Nonstructural carbon reserves in the xylem, needles and roots were largely unaffected by the treatments. Our results suggest that low and high carbon supply affects wood formation, primarily through a strong effect on cell proliferation, and respiration, but local nonstructural carbon concentrations appear to be maintained homeostatically. This contrasts with reports of decoupling of source activity and wood formation at the whole-tree or ecosystem level, highlighting the need to better understand organ-specific responses, within-tree feedbacks, as well as phenological and ontogenetic effects on sink-source dynamics.

Vernalization Alters Sink and Source Identities and Reverses Phloem Translocation from Taproots to Shoots in Sugar Beet.

During their first year of growth, overwintering biennial plants transport Suc through the phloem from photosynthetic source tissues to storage tissues. In their second year, they mobilize carbon from these storage tissues to fuel new growth and reproduction. However, both the mechanisms driving this shift and the link to reproductive growth remain unclear. During vegetative growth, biennial sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) maintains a steep Suc concentration gradient between the shoot (source) and the taproot (sink). To shift from vegetative to generative growth, they require a chilling phase known as vernalization. We studied sugar beet sink-source dynamics upon vernalization and showed that before flowering, the taproot underwent a reversal from a sink to a source of carbohydrates. This transition was induced by transcriptomic and functional reprogramming of sugar beet tissue, resulting in a reversal of flux direction in the phloem. In this transition, the vacuolar Suc importers and exporters TONOPLAST SUGAR TRANSPORTER2;1 and SUCROSE TRANSPORTER4 were oppositely regulated, leading to the mobilization of sugars from taproot storage vacuoles. Concomitant changes in the expression of floral regulator genes suggest that these processes are a prerequisite for bolting. Our data will help both to dissect the metabolic and developmental triggers for bolting and to identify potential targets for genome editing and breeding.

Aphid Herbivory Drives Asymmetry in Carbon for Nutrient Exchange between Plants and an Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus.

SummaryAssociations formed between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are characterized by the bi-directional exchange of fungal-acquired soil nutrients for plant-fixed organic carbon compounds. Mycorrhizal-acquired nutrient assimilation by plants may be symmetrically linked to carbon (C) transfer from plant to fungus or governed by sink-source dynamics. Abiotic factors, including atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]), can affect the relative cost of resources traded between mutualists, thereby influencing symbiotic function. Whether biotic factors, such as insect herbivores that represent external sinks for plant C, impact mycorrhizal function remains unstudied. By supplying 33P to an AM fungus (Rhizophagus irregularis) and 14CO2 to wheat, we tested the impact of increasing C sink strength (i.e., aphid herbivory) and increasing C source strength (i.e., elevated [CO2]) on resource exchange between mycorrhizal symbionts. Allocation of plant C to the AM fungus decreased dramatically following exposure to the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi), with high [CO2] failing to alleviate the aphid-induced decline in plant C allocated to the AM fungus. Mycorrhizal-mediated uptake of 33P by plants was maintained regardless of aphid presence or elevated [CO2], meaning insect herbivory drove asymmetry in carbon for nutrient exchange between symbionts. Here, we provide direct evidence that external biotic C sinks can limit plant C allocation to an AM fungus without hindering mycorrhizal-acquired nutrient uptake. Our findings highlight the context dependency of resource exchange between plants and AM fungi and suggest biotic factors—individually and in combination with abiotic factors—should be considered as powerful regulators of symbiotic function.

Phylodynamic Analysis of Ebola Virus Disease Transmission in Sierra Leone.

We generated genome sequences from 218 cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in Sierra Leone (SLE) during 2014–2015 to complement available datasets, particularly by including cases from a period of low sequence coverage during peak transmission of Ebola virus (EBOV) in the highly-affected Western Area division of SLE. The combined dataset was utilized to produce phylogenetic and phylodynamic inferences, to study sink–source dynamics and virus dispersal from highly-populated transmission hotspots. We identified four districts in SLE where EBOV was introduced and transmission occurred without onward exportation to other districts. We also identified six districts that substantially contributed to the dispersal of the virus and prolonged the EVD outbreak: five of these served as major hubs, with lots of movement in and out, and one acted primarily as a source, exporting the virus to other areas of the country. Positive correlations between case numbers, inter-district transition events, and district population sizes reaffirm that population size was a driver of EBOV transmission dynamics in SLE. The data presented here confirm the role of urban hubs in virus dispersal and of a delayed laboratory response in the expansion and perpetuation of the EVD outbreak in SLE.

Initial hydraulic failure followed by late-stage carbon starvation leads to drought-induced death in the tree Trema orientalis

Drought-induced tree death has become a serious problem in global forest ecosystems. Two nonexclusive hypotheses, hydraulic failure and carbon starvation, have been proposed to explain tree die-offs. To clarify the mechanisms, we investigated the physiological processes of drought-induced tree death in saplings with contrasting Huber values (sapwood area/total leaf area). First, hydraulic failure and reduced respiration were found in the initial process of tree decline, and in the last stage carbon starvation led to tree death. The carbohydrate reserves at the stem bases, low in healthy trees, accumulated at the beginning of the declining process due to phloem transport failure, and then decreased just before dying. The concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates at the stem bases are a good indicator of tree damage. The physiological processes and carbon sink-source dynamics that occur during lethal drought provide important insights into the adaptive measures underlying forest die-offs under global warming conditions.

Incorporating historical and ecological genetic data for leopard grouper (Mycteroperca rosacea) into marine reserve design in the Gulf of California

Effective design of marine reserves for use in fisheries management and conservation requires a clear understanding of patterns of larval transport and sink-source dynamics between populations, as well as a clear understanding of population demography. Mitochondrial and nuclear markers were analyzed to investigate potential mechanisms impacting connectivity among and the demographic history of subpopulations of a commercially important species in the Gulf of California, the leopard grouper (Mycteroperca rosacea). Demographic history and connectivity analyses included a coalescent analysis, estimating neutrality indices, estimating global and pairwise F’ST, ΦST, or G’’ST, and a priori methodologies to identify genetically distinct units and barriers to dispersal. Average, long-term connectivity between geographic regions in the Gulf was also estimated. Divergence of mitochondrial lineages of leopard grouper dated to the late Pleistocene, with deep-water islands serving as demographically stable populations that may have acted as sources for new populations during periods of climate variability. Additionally, we observed genetically distinct units of leopard grouper in the Gulf, particularly between peninsular and mainland sites, as well as asymmetrical migration between the northern and central Gulf. Observed patterns of genetic differentiation are likely attributed to complex asymmetrical oceanographic currents and local larval retention. Based on our genetic findings and current fishing pressure in certain regions, we recommend implementing small, upstream no-take zones in the areas east of Isla Angel de la Guarda, around Isla San Lorenzo and Isla San Esteban, and north of Isla Tiburon, that would enhance connectivity among subpopulations, preserve sites with high genetic diversity, and benefit fisheries downstream of these sites.

CASSIA--a dynamic model for predicting intra-annual sink demand and interannual growth variation in Scots pine.

The control of tree growth vs environment by carbon sources or sinks remains unresolved although it is widely studied. This study investigates growth of tree components and carbon sink-source dynamics at different temporal scales. We constructed a dynamic growth model 'carbon allocation sink source interaction' (CASSIA) that calculates tree-level carbon balance from photosynthesis, respiration, phenology and temperature-driven potential structural growth of tree organs and dynamics of stored nonstructural carbon (NSC) and their modifying influence on growth. With the model, we tested hypotheses that sink demand explains the intra-annual growth dynamics of the meristems, and that the source supply is further needed to explain year-to-year growth variation. The predicted intra-annual dimensional growth of shoots and needles and the number of cells in xylogenesis phases corresponded with measurements, whereas NSC hardly limited the growth, supporting the first hypothesis. Delayed GPP influence on potential growth was necessary for simulating the yearly growth variation, indicating also at least an indirect source limitation. CASSIA combines seasonal growth and carbon balance dynamics with long-term source dynamics affecting growth and thus provides a first step to understanding the complex processes regulating intra- and interannual growth and sink-source dynamics.

Long-term relationships among pesticide applications, mobility, and soil erosion in a vineyard watershed

Agricultural pesticide use has increased worldwide during the last several decades, but the long-term fate, storage, and transfer dynamics of pesticides in a changing environment are poorly understood. Many pesticides have been progressively banned, but in numerous cases, these molecules are stable and may persist in soils, sediments, and ice. Many studies have addressed the question of their possible remobilization as a result of global change. In this article, we present a retro-observation approach based on lake sediment records to monitor micropollutants and to evaluate the long-term succession and diffuse transfer of herbicides, fungicides, and insecticide treatments in a vineyard catchment in France. The sediment allows for a reliable reconstruction of past pesticide use through time, validated by the historical introduction, use, and banning of these organic and inorganic pesticides in local vineyards. Our results also revealed how changes in these practices affect storage conditions and, consequently, the pesticides' transfer dynamics. For example, the use of postemergence herbicides (glyphosate), which induce an increase in soil erosion, led to a release of a banned remnant pesticide (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, DDT), which had been previously stored in vineyard soil, back into the environment. Management strategies of ecotoxicological risk would be well served by recognition of the diversity of compounds stored in various environmental sinks, such as agriculture soil, and their capability to become sources when environmental conditions change.

Multivariate benthic ecosystem functioning in the Arctic – benthic fluxes explained by environmental parameters in the southeastern Beaufort Sea

Abstract. The effects of climate change on Arctic marine ecosystems and their biogeochemical cycles are difficult to predict given the complex physical, biological and chemical interactions among the ecosystem components. We studied benthic biogeochemical fluxes in the Arctic and the influence of short-term (seasonal to annual), long-term (annual to decadal) and other environmental variability on their spatial distribution to provide a baseline for estimates of the impact of future changes. In summer 2009, we measured fluxes of dissolved oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, soluble reactive phosphate and silicic acid at the sediment–water interface at eight sites in the southeastern Beaufort Sea at water depths from 45 to 580 m. The spatial pattern of the measured benthic boundary fluxes was heterogeneous. Multivariate analysis of flux data showed that no single or reduced combination of fluxes could explain the majority of spatial variation, indicating that oxygen flux is not representative of other nutrient sink–source dynamics. We tested the influence of eight environmental parameters on single benthic fluxes. Short-term environmental parameters (sinking flux of particulate organic carbon above the bottom, sediment surface Chl a) were most important for explaining oxygen, ammonium and nitrate fluxes. Long-term parameters (porosity, surface manganese and iron concentration, bottom water oxygen concentrations) together with δ13Corg signature explained most of the spatial variation in phosphate, nitrate and nitrite fluxes. Variation in pigments at the sediment surface was most important to explain variation in fluxes of silicic acid. In a model including all fluxes synchronously, the overall spatial distribution could be best explained (57%) by the combination of sediment Chl a, phaeopigments, δ13Corg, surficial manganese and bottom water oxygen concentration. We conclude that it is necessary to consider long-term environmental variability along with rapidly ongoing environmental changes to predict the flux of oxygen and nutrients across Arctic sediments even at short timescales. Our results contribute to improve ecological models predicting the impact of climate change on the functioning of marine ecosystems.

Non-structural carbohydrate partitioning in grass stems: a target to increase yield stability, stress tolerance, and biofuel production

A dramatic change in agricultural crops is needed in order to keep pace with the demands of an increasing human population, exponential need for renewable fuels, and uncertain climatic changes. Grasses make up the vast majority of agricultural commodities. How these grasses capture, transport, and store carbohydrates underpins all aspects of crop productivity. Sink-source dynamics within the plant direct how much, where, and when carbohydrates are allocated, as well as determine the harvestable tissue. Carbohydrate partitioning can limit the yield capacity of these plants, thus offering a potential target for crop improvement. Grasses have the ability to buffer this sink-source interaction by transiently storing carbohydrates in stem tissue when production from the source is greater than whole-plant demand. These reserves improve yield stability in grain crops by providing an alternative source when photosynthetic capacity is reduced during the later phases of grain filling, or during periods of environmental and biotic stresses. Domesticated grasses such as sugarcane and sweet sorghum have undergone selection for high accumulation of stem carbohydrates, which serve as the primary sources of sugars for human and animal consumption, as well as ethanol production for fuel. With the enormous expectations placed on agricultural production in the near future, research into carbohydrate partitioning in grasses is essential for maintaining and increasing yields in grass crops. This review highlights the current knowledge of non-structural carbohydrate dynamics in grass stems and discusses the impacts of stem reserves in essential agronomic grasses.

Go with the flow: tidal import and export of larvae from semi-enclosed bays

There is a growing body of evidence that suggests the effective functioning of marine reserves is dependent on the dispersal and recruitment of larvae. Enhanced production inside reserves is predicted to lead to a net larval export and increased settlement and recruitment outside reserve boundaries. However, larval retention in bays is also well documented. Since bays are increasingly being used as reserve areas, planktonic larvae of benthic marine invertebrates were sampled from two semi-enclosed marine reserves during flood and ebb tides to determine whether these bays are acting as net exporters of larvae. Neither reserve was a net importer or exporter of species richness, larval abundance or diversity, although one reserve showed a small export of species richness during the hours of darkness. Both reserves balanced the net import of some species with a net export of others, which was generally related to adult or larval abundance, although exceptions were found in one reserve. Significant effects of light were found, with the net import or export of some species occurring exclusively during either the hours of daylight or darkness. An increased understanding of larval sink-source dynamics in bays is essential for ensuring their effective use as marine reserves to meet specific conservation needs.

Heat-shock effects on photosynthesis and sink-source dynamics in wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.)

To assess the mechanisms causing genotypic differences in heat tolerance of wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), physiological responses to a heat shock in a vegetative (‘end of tillering’) or a reproductive (‘early grain filling’) stage were studied. Three cultivars — Lavett, Ciano-79 and Attila — differing in adaptation to heat were grown in a glasshouse at a day/night temperature regime of 15/10 °C and a 12-h daylength from sowing to ‘end of tillering’ and next at two day/night regimes of 25/20 and 18/13 °C under natural daylength. The heat-shock treatment consisted of an exposure of plants to temperatures raised gradually over a time-span of 12 hours to above 30 °C with a maximum of 38 °C during three hours at midday for three days either at the ‘end of tillering’ or at ‘grain filling’. A heat shock at the ‘end of tillering’ strongly reduced the rate of leaf photosynthesis. A similar heat shock during ‘grain filling’ decreased both rate of photosynthesis (source) and grain growth (sink). The rate of leaf photosynthesis was decreased by 40 to 70%, depending on cultivar and developmental stage. Photosynthesis fully recovered within 4 days after the heat-shock treatment was ended. The effects of the heat shock on biomass yield were more pronounced for treatments at ‘early grain filling’ than at ‘end of tillering’. However, the impact of a 3-day heat shock on biomass yield was less than the effects of the pre- and post-treatment growing temperature.

Effects of cognitive abilities on metapopulation connectivity

Connectivity among demes in a metapopulation depends on both the landscape's and the focal organism's properties (including its mobility and cognitive abilities). Using individual‐based simulations, we contrast the consequences of three different cognitive strategies on several measures of metapopulation connectivity. Model animals search suitable habitat patches while dispersing through a model landscape made of cells varying in size, shape, attractiveness and friction. In the blind strategy, the next cell is chosen randomly among the adjacent ones. In the near‐sighted strategy, the choice depends on the relative attractiveness of these adjacent cells. In the far‐ sighted strategy, animals may additionally target suitable patches that appear within their perceptual range.Simulations show that the blind strategy provides the best overall connectivity, and results in balanced dispersal. The near‐sighted strategy traps animals into corridors that reduce the number of potential targets, thereby fragmenting metapopulations in several local clusters of demes, and inducing sink–source dynamics. This sort of local trapping is somewhat prevented in the far‐sighted strategy. The colonization success of strategies depends highly on initial energy reserves: blind does best when energy is high, near‐sighted wins at intermediate levels, and far‐sighted outcompetes its rivals at low energy reserves.We also expect strong effects in terms of metapopulation genetics: the blind strategy generates a migrant‐pool mode of dispersal that should erase local structures. By contrast, near‐ and far‐sighted strategies generate a propagule‐pool mode of dispersal and source–sink behavior that should boost structures (high genetic variance among‐ and low variance within local clusters of demes), particularly if metapopulation dynamics is also affected by extinction–colonization processes.Our results thus point to important effects of the cognitive ability of dispersers on the connectivity, dynamics and genetics of metapopulations.