Sinharaja World Heritage Site Research Articles

South-west Sri Lanka: a floristic refugium in South Asia

In South Asia, south-west Sri Lanka alone represents the sole surviving perhumid region where Mixed Dipterocarp Forests (MDF) harbour a number of relict signature taxa providing evidence of ancient plant migration routes from Gondwana to perhumid Far Eastern Sunda land, at least partially via southern Laurasia. Palynological and phylogenetic evidence now confirm that the Malesian rain forest flora overwhelmingly immigrated from tropical Africa/Madagascar and South Asia along an ever-wet equatorial corridor sometime before the collision of the Indian Plate with the Southern Laurasian coast in middle Eocene (c. 45 Ma). This ever-wet climatic and geological history has led to the evolution of a characteristic species composition and dynamics within SW Sri Lanka’s rain forest communities, which exhibit remarkable patterns of species distribution and habitat specialization, and which parallel those of Far Eastern sister taxa. We here examine the patterns of floristic variation in each of three MDF sites using classification and ordination methods to analyse tree data collected in 62 random plots, each 0.25ha, along an altitudinal gradient. In addition, a 25 ha forest dynamics plot (FDP) was established in the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, within the CTFS-ForestGEO network that addresses issues related to community ecology and phylogenetics incorporating large-scale biogeographic patterns of major clades of both plants and animals. In the above studies, ecologically distinct floristic assemblages were revealed, i) among the three MDF sites as well as, ii) among the ridge-, slope-, and valley habitats within each forest site. In the FDP too, >80% of the 125 species, with individuals >1 cm dbh and >100 individuals per species, are significantly more associated with one or more of eight topographic habitat categories than in others. These results suggest that ecological ranges and dispersion of tree species in SW Sri Lanka is primarily mediated by soil water and nutrient levels in topographically different catenal habitats mirroring those in the Far East. Many of these species are threatened relict endemics, and their distribution patterns have important conservation implications. Their spatial distributional features provide useful criteria in site-species matching or environmental filtering in forest restoration efforts.

Challenges of Biopiracy: Implementing Community Based Eco-tourism (CBET) in the Sri Lankan context

Protecting the right of the local community/country to use their own genetic resources available in a particular area is an important element of environmental and biodiversity conservation. However, one of the main biodiversity conservation challenges in Southern peripheral countries is biopiracy. Community based ecotourism (CBET) is a well-established concept and its implementation is an important component for many regional development strategies. This research argues that though CBET which originated as a Western concept was successfully applied in number of projects, it generates biopiracy challenges in its implementation since CBET operates within different geo-political, economic and cultural contexts. This research examines such challenges in CBET initiatives in the Sinharaja world heritage site, Sri Lanka. A qualitative-inductive research methodology has principally guided this research to examine the socio-cultural, socio-economic and geo-political context of biopiracy issues. A total of 293 participants have informed this research including 193 interviews (115 individuals, and 15 different focus-groups totalling 78 people) and 100 questionnaire respondents. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) method is used to examine both primary qualitative data collected through participant and direct observation, interviews and secondary data. One of the main findings is that despite plans being developed at a community level, in wider context, biopiracy challenges related to superimpose capitalism contest the CBET ideologies. Superimposed capitalism results in individualistic and competitive behaviours that undermine collaborative and responsible community approach. Presently, smuggling out of Wallapatta plant (Gyrinops walla) and gathering Spotted towfinger gecko (Cyrtodactylus triedra) an endemic nocturnal reptile species, have become profitable in Sinharaja world heritage site and a growing number of biopirates venture into here. Local community of this site take risks in forest genetic resources smuggling because it provides them with the means of earning much money within a short period. Regardless of all prevalent laws and regulations against bioprospecting, biopiracy, biological resource and wildlife smuggling, authorities have still failed to control these activities in this site because of the support given to bio-pirates by the local community. The research concludes that CBET is an appropriate pathway for tourism development in Sri Lanka but recognition of biopiracy issues associated with superimposed capitalism is required and needed to be addressed. A well-defined monitoring system and an effective legal framework to control adverse effects are important for achieving CBET goals while confronting biopiracy. Keywords: Biopiracy, Community based eco-tourism, Superimposed capitalism

Challenges of Biopiracy: Implementing Community Based Ecotourism (CBET) in the Sri Lankan context

Abstract Protecting the right of the local community/country to use their own genetic resources available in a particular area is an important element of environmental and biodiversity conservation. However, one of the biggest biodiversity conservation challenges faced by southern peripheral countries is biopiracy and related issues. Community based ecotourism (CBET) is a well-established concept and its implementation is an important component in many regional development strategies. This research argues that though CBET which originated as a western concept has been successfully applied in number of projects, it generates biopiracy challenges in its implementation when CBET operates within different geo-political, economic and cultural contexts. This research examines such challenges to CBET initiatives in the Sinharaja world heritage site, Sri Lanka. A qualitative-inductive research methodology has principally guided this research to examine the socio-cultural and socio-economic context of biopiracy issues. A total of 293 participants have informed this research including 193 interviews. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) method is used to examine both primary qualitative data collected through participant and direct observation, interviews and secondary data. One of the main findings is that despite plans being developed at a community level, in wider context, challenges of biopiracy related to superimposed capitalism contest CBET ideologies. Superimposed capitalism results in individualistic and competitive behaviours that undermine collaborative and responsible community approach. Presently, smuggling out of Wallapatta plant (Gyrinops walla) and gathering of Spotted bowfinger gecko (Cyrtodactylus triedra) which is an endemic nocturnal reptile species have become profitable in KudawaSinharaja site and a growing number of biopirates venture into here. Local community of this site takes risks in forest genetic resources smuggling because it provides them with the means of earning much money within a short period. Regardless of all prevalent laws and regulations against bioprospecting, biopiracy, biological resource and wildlife smuggling, authorities have still failed to control these activities in this site because of the support given to bio-pirates by the local community. The research concludes that CBET is an appropriate pathway for tourism development in Sri Lanka but recognition of biopiracy issues associated with superimposed capitalism is required and needed to be addressed. A well-defined monitoring system and an effective legal framework to control adverse effects are important for achieving CBET goals while confronting biopiracy. Keywords: Biopiracy, Community Based Eco-tourism, Superimposed capitalism.

A new canopy-dwelling species of Dendrelaphis (Serpentes: Colubridae)from Sinharaja, World Heritage Site, Sri Lanka.

A new species of Dendrelaphis, Dendrelaphis sinharajensis sp. nov. is described, the sixth species of the genus known from Sri Lanka. The new species is readily distinguished from all other congeners by its colour pattern and scalation. The species is a canopy-dweller known only from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site and its vicinity, in the lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka.

SEED BANK DYNAMICS OF KEKILLA FERN LANDS AND ABANDONED CHENA UNDER PARTIAL SHADE AND FULL SUN CONDITIONS

Seed bank dynamics can be considered an important component of the regeneration ofindividual plant populations and communities. Soil seed bank dynamics in Kekillafernlands and abandoned chena need to be studied as possible sources of regeneration forforest restoration of degraded lands. This study was done to understand regeneration dynamics of soil seed banks with referenceto two light regimes in Kekil1a fernlands and abandoned chena in the periphery ofSinharaja World Heritage Site. Sinharaja World Heritage Site is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique lowlandrain forests now remaining in Sri Lanka. Today some areas of the periphery of Sinharajaare covered with secondary scrub and Kekilla (Dicranopteris linearis) fernlands. Threesites of Kekilla fernlands and three sites of abandoned chena were selected for the study. Four soil samples were purposively collected from four different locations in each site.These four samples were pooled and mixed in a polythene bag. Eight trays were preparedusing one mixture of soil from one site. Four trays from each site were placed underpartial shade (750J.! mol m-2 S-1 ) and others were placed under full sunlight (2000J.! mol m-2S-I). Seeds inside the soils were allowed to germinate. Newly germinated seeds wererecorded every fifth day. All germinated seeds that were able to be identified wereremoved and counted once a month. Seedlings of 45 taxa were identified during the period of study. Among the countedseedlings a larger proportion was recruited under the partial shade treatment than full suntreatment. Results indicate that the number of species germinated from abandoned chenawas greater than that of Kekilla femlands. Finding suggest that in all treatments onlypioneer species germinated. Climax species were not represented in any of the sites orlight treatments.

NATURAL REGENeRATION IN KEKILLA FERNLANDS IN THE PERIPHERY OF SINHARAJA WORLD HERITAGE SITE

In tropical moist climate Dicranopteris !inearis (Kekilla) fernland can develop as a resultof rain forest clearance followed by frequent burning. In Sri Lanka D. linearis fernlandsare capable of suppressing the natural regeneration of rain forest. Sinha raja WorldHeritage Site is one of the least disturbed and biologically unique lowland rain forest nowremaining in Sri Lanka. Some areas of the periphery of Sinharaja are covered with Dlenearis fern. Natural regeneration dynamics of soil seed banks need to be studied as apossible source of regeneration for forest restoration in these fern lands.This study was carried out to understand the natural regeneration of soil seed bank inKekilla fernland with reference to surface soil disturbance and trophographic levels in theperiphery of Sinharaja World Heritage Site.Three sites of Kekilla fernlands were selected for the study. Two surface soil disturbancetreatments were applied to each site. The first treatment (Root Removal) was applied at thebeginning of the study. The next treatment (Till) was applied to each site after six monthsfrom the first treatment. Seeds in the soil were allowed to germinate and seedlings werecounted once in two weeks during the first four months. After four months the seedlingswere recorded once a month. Transectswere laid out in each site to understand the floristiccomposition in surrounding vegetation of D. lenearis fernlands.Seedlings of 35 taxa were identified during the period of study. The study revealed thatboth soil disturbance treatments can facilitate the establishment of herbs, shrubs and treesin the fern land dominated by D. lenearis. Results showed that herbs, shrubs, grassesrepresented the greater proportions of seedling recruitment than pioneer trees. Seedlings ofprimary forest species were not existentSpecies composition of soil seed bank ill three-tophographic positions was not significantlydifferent. Numbers of species and seedling density were greatest in root removal treatment.Seedlings of primary forest species found in surrounding vegetation were not regeneratingin the plots studied. Only few pioneer tree seedlings were found in the plots, representingsurrounding vegetation of Kekilla fernland.

Crocidura hikmiya, a new shrew (Mammalia: Soricomorpha: Soricidae) from Sri Lanka

A new species of crocidurine shrew, Crocidura hikmiya, is described from the Sinharaja World Heritage Site, Sri Lanka. The species is diagnosed on the basis of both morphology and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Morphologically C. hikmiya is distinguished from C. miya, among other characters, by having a shorter tail, condyles protruding beyond the margin of the braincase, a posterior edge of maxillary bone rounded (dorsal view), an occipital bone triangularly shaped with an obtuse angle (dorsal view) and slightly flattened on the back; a foramen magnum less deep (ventral view); a dorsal posterior brain case not smooth; and an angular process of dentary short and stout. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that C. hikmiya is the sister-species of C. miya. The uncorrected genetic distance between the two species for the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene fragment is 9.7–10.1%, suggesting species-level divergence. Crocidura hikmiya is confined to the mid-montane forests and lowland rainforests in the southwestern Sri Lanka, while C. miya is confined to montane forests of the central hills.

ANALYZING THE SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF A SRI LANKAN TREE SPECIES WITH MULTIPLE SCALES OF CLUSTERING

Clustering at multiple critical scales may be common for plants since many different factors and processes may cause clustering. This is especially true for tropical rain forests for which theories explaining species coexistence and community structure rest heavily on spatial patterns. We used point pattern analysis to analyze the spatial structure of Shorea congestiflora, a dominant species in a 25-ha forest dynamics plot in a rain forest at Sinharaja World Heritage Site (Sri Lanka), which apparently shows clustering at several scales. We developed cluster processes incorporating two critical scales of clustering for exploring the spatial structure of S. congestiflora and interpret it in relation to factors such as competition, dispersal limitation, recruitment limitation, and Janzen-Connell effects. All size classes showed consistent large-scale clustering with a cluster radius of approximately 25 m. Inside the larger clusters, small-scale clusters with a radius of 8 m were evident for recruits and saplings, weak for intermediates, and disappeared for adults. The pattern of all trees could be divided into two independent patterns: a random pattern (nearest neighbor distance > 8 m) comprising approximately 12% of the trees and a nested double-cluster pattern. This finding suggests two independent recruitment and/or seed dispersal mechanisms. Saplings were several times as abundant as recruits and may accumulate several recruit generations. Recruits were only weakly associated with adults and occupied about half of the large-scale clusters, but saplings almost all. This is consistent with recruitment limitation. For approximately 70% (95%) of all juveniles the nearest adult was less than 26 m away (53 m), suggesting a dispersal limitation that may also be related to the critical large-scale clustering. Our example illustrates the manner in which the use of a specific and complex null hypothesis of spatial structure in point pattern analysis can help us better understand the biology of a species and generate specific hypotheses to be further investigated in the field.

Ectomycorrhizal colonization and seedling growth of Shorea (Dipterocarpaceae) species in simulated shade environments of a Sri Lankan rain forest

The purpose of our study was to examine whether the degree of ectomycorrhizal (EM) colonization was associated with amount of shade for potted seedlings of five rain forest tree species. Seedlings were exposed to a range of shade treatments—from the open to that emulating the degree of shade beneath a deep-canopied forest. The experiment was carried out at the field station (580 m.a.s.l) of the Sinharaja World Heritage Site in southwestern Sri Lanka. We selected five species for the study: Shorea affinis (Thw.) Ashton, S. congestiflora (Thw.) Ashton, S. cordifolia (Thw.) Ashton, S. gardneri (Thw.) Ashton, and S. zeylanica (Thw.) Ashton, all members of a sympatric clade of endemic canopy trees in the family dipterocarpaceae. Results show that the percentage EM colonization was significantly different among shade treatments, for all five species ( p < 0.05). However, EM root colonization was not significantly different among species. Highest percentages of EM colonization for all species, except for S. congestiflora, were in treatments providing full open conditions. However, seedling growth of all species were best under partial shade conditions ( p < 0.05), intermediate between the deep shade of a forest understory and no shade of open environments. The non-linear relationship between seedling growth performance and EM colonization is discussed.

Changing role of non-timber forest products (NTFP) in rural household economy: the case of Sinharaja World Heritage site in Sri Lanka.

This paper examines the modified patterns of utilizing non-timber forest products (NTFP) and associated behavioral changes around tropical forest areas in the context of conservation-related objectives and other commercially driven objectives. Our study introduces a conceptual framework based on the household production theory and tests empirically the hypotheses drawn at Sinharaja World Heritage in Sri Lanka. The results show that conditions introduced by forest conservation programs and the spread of small-scale commercial tea cultivation are transforming the economy around Sinharaja. The process is an economically rational one where resident communities decide upon their actions based on the opportunity cost of time involved with NTFP in the absence of observable prices. Although the process, overall, has led to a decline in the role of NTFP in the household economy, its impact over different NTFP are not uniform, leaving sustained demand for certain NTFP. This situation calls for a multifaceted approach in forest management programs to address the various household needs fulfilled by NTFP-based activities.

Leaf structure of Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) in relation to site affinity within a tropical rain forest

This study examined four species of Syzygium (S. firmum, S. makul, S. operculatum, S. rubicundum) Myrtaceae, a tree genus that dominates the canopy of rain forests of south-west Sri Lanka. Syzygium spp. occupy differing habitats with relation to succession and forest topography. We examined differences in leaf morphology and physiology in response to amount of shade, an important environmental variable affecting Syzygium distribution within the forest. To study change in leaf structure and physiology, environmental shelters were constructed simulating forest shade that differed in quality, quantity and duration. Seedlings were exposed to: (i) 0% shade (full sun, FS), red : far red (R : FR) ratio 1.27; (ii) 65% shade (large opening, LO) with direct sunlight similar to the centre of a large canopy opening, R : FR ratio 1.27; (iii) 82% shade (small opening, SO) with direct sunlight similar to the centre of a small canopy opening, R : FR ratio 1.27; (iv) 58% uniform light shade (LS) with a quality similar to the outside edge of a large canopy opening, R : FR ratio 1.05; (v) 85% uniform medium shade (MS) with a quality similar to the inside forest edge of a large canopy opening, R : FR ratio 0.97; (vi) 99% uniform deep shade (DS) similar to that of the forest understorey, R : FR ratio 0.23. The shelters were constructed in a large open area at the field station of the Sinharaja World Heritage site, Sri Lanka. Seedlings of each species were grown for two years in their respective shade treatments before physiological, morphological and anatomical measurements were made on leaves. Variation in leaf structure and physiology between the species was associated with differences in shade-tolerance and water-use. All species increased in photosynthesis rates and dimensions in leaf structure (leaf blade and cuticle thickness, stomatal density, thickness of upper and lower epidermis, and thickness of palisade mesophyll) with decrease in shade. In contrast, stomatal conductivity was highest in the DS (99% shade) treatment. Leaves of Syzygium firmum were thickest and largest in area. S. firmum also had highest photosynthesis in the SO (82% shade) treatment. S. firmum was the most shade-tolerant of all species: it grows well in low shade and its leaf structure suggests it to be the most conservative in water-use of the Syzygium spp. In the forest S. firmum can persist in the forest shade as established seedlings, but grows best within canopy openings of late-seral rain forest. Leaves of S. operculatum were thinnest but had highest stomatal densities of the four species. S. operculatum is considered shade-intolerant, with a leaf structure suggesting it to be prone to desiccation, and by implication susceptible to drought. S. operculatum is found along streams within early seral rain forest habitat, often originating on stream banks after land clearance for cultivation. In the FS (0% shade) treatment, S. rubicundun had highest photosynthesis rates and greatest number of leaves but smallest leaf area of the Syzygium species. S. rubicundum is more shade-intolerant but more efficient in water-use than S. operculatum. S. rubicundum is a mid-seral canopy tree of the midslope stands that are thought to have originated after catastrophic windthrows or swidden cultivation. The leaf physiology and structure of S. makul suggests it to be both moderately shade-tolerant and conservative in water-use. It is the most widely distributed Syzygium species across the topography of late-seral rain forest. We suggest forest disturbance and hydrology are important environmental factors that influence distribution of Syzygium species across the topography. Results from this study contribute to a body of knowledge suggesting that canopy tree species of rain forests in south-west Sri Lanka have discrete affinities to topography and differences in successional status, and that adaptations in leaf structure and physiology are indicative of such phenomena.