Single-reed Instruments Research Articles

Effects of two-dimensional reed oscillation on airflow and sound generation in a single-reed instrument

While two-dimensional (2D) reed oscillation modes of single-reed woodwind instruments have been reported in previous studies, little is known about their effects on airflow and sound generation. In this study, we conducted aeroacoustic simulations of a clarinet mouthpiece and resonator coupled with one-dimensional (1D) and 2D reed deformation models and investigated the changes in flow and sound generation due to the 2D reed vibration. The 1D and 2D reeds were modeled using 1D beam and thin plate theories, respectively, whereas the three-dimensional airflow was simulated by solving the compressible Navier–Stokes equations. The self-sustained oscillations of the 2D reed model mainly exhibited a flexural mode at the fundamental frequency, which is consistent with previous observations. Complex torsional modes were observed only at higher harmonic frequencies. A comparison between the 1D and 2D reed models demonstrated that the 2D reed opened later at the side face of the mouthpiece than the 1D reed owing to the torsional mode, which changed the time variation of the flow rate into the mouthpiece and the far-field sound in the high-frequency range. These results suggest the importance of the torsional deformation characteristics of reeds on the timbre of single-reed instruments.

Physics-based playability maps for single-reed woodwind instruments.

Musical instrument playability can be analyzed by visualizing a subspace defined by musicians' control parameters. This is common for bowed-string instruments in the form of Schelleng diagrams. Such diagrams can be populated either through experimental measurements or physical modeling. It was recently suggested to use similar diagrams for analyzing wind instrument playability. This study explores this direction using a physical model, previously validated against experimental measurements. It is shown that reed beating needs to be taken into account before playability analysis. This could help arrive at specific reed and mouthpiece designs according to the musicians' desires.

Sound synthesis applications using a physical model of a single-reed woodwind instrument

Physical modeling can be used to analyze and predict the vibrations of a musical instrument. This also enables to numerically synthesize sounds as if they were produced by a real instrument. Focusing on single-reed woodwind instruments, a physical model should incorporate the actions of the player in order to synthesize realistic sounds. This interaction mostly takes place at the instrument mouthpiece—toneholes opened by the player's fingers may be approximated by changing the instrument geometry. A physical model is presented that is able to take embouchure effects into account, in order to reliably simulate note transitions. Regarding physical modeling synthesis, the numerical efficiency of the underlying algorithms should also be considered. Capturing as many physical phenomena as possible may lead to models that require longer running times. Omitting less significant phenomena may lead to models suitable for real-time performance, while retaining most of the sound characteristics of the real instrument. In either case, it is of utmost importance to prove that the simulation algorithms are numerically stable. Sound examples are presented in an attempt to imitate real recordings, as well as in a live performance setting (examples available at https://iwk.mdw.ac.at/sound-synthesis/)

Two-dimensional playability maps for single-reed woodwind instruments

One method to analyze musical instrument playability is by visualizing a two-dimensional subspace of the musician's control parameters. This hasbeen widely used in the form of Schelleng diagrams for bowed string instruments. There, it is possible to identify regions within the bow force—bowing position subspace where Helmholtz motion is achieved. Such diagrams may be populated either on the basis of experimental measurements, or via physical modeling. In fact, physical modeling is particularly suited to this task, since playing parameters can be directly controlled. It has been recently suggested (Woodhouse, in Proc. SMAC 2023) that similar diagrams may be used for analyzing wind instrument playability. This study aims at exploring this direction using a physical model which has been previously validated against experimental measurements. Initially, an informed decision is made on which parameters should be chosen for plotting an equivalent playability diagram. Subsequently, various diagram versions are generated, focusing on different aspects of the generated tones. As already pointed out by Woodhouse, similarities appear between the diagrams for bowed-string and woodwind instruments. It remains to examine how valuable information regarding woodwind playability may be extracted from such studies.

Exploring player’s feelings on clarinet mouthpiece geometry using artificial blowing machines and airflow simulations

The mouthpiece geometry of single-reed instruments has been known to have a great impact on sound quality and playability. Although many researchers have investigated the effects of the geometry using artificial blowing machines or user case studies, few attention has been paid to the essential cause of physical changes in the instrument. In this study, we propose a method combining the artificial blowing machine and numerical flow simulations to explore the player’s feelings about the airflow and sound generation in the clarinet mouthpiece. With the artificial blowing machine, the mouth pressure, as well as lip force, were systematically changed using a pressure regulator and strain gauge. At particular conditions, the numerical flow simulation was conducted by solving fluid–structure interactions with the Navier–Stokes equations and the one-dimensional beam equation. The playability of the mouthpiece was shown by the changes in oscillation threshold pressures and sound spectral characteristics, whereas the cause of the changes could be described by the airflow pressures inside the mouthpieces. The results suggest that the combination of the artificial blower and the flow simulations can be effectively used for clarifying the cause of changes in players’ feelings.

Objective characterization of saxophone mouthpiece playability

In single-reed instruments, the mouthpiece and reed have an essential effect on instrument playability, since they largely determine the range of lip force and blowing pressure required to produce notes. This paper quantitatively examines the effect of three different mouthpiece designs (Selmer S80, Concept, and Spirit) on the range of lip force and blowing pressure combinations in which tone can be produced on the alto saxophone for notes ranging from D3 to D5. Average lip force, blowing pressure, loudness, and tuning are investigated as functions of notes and for three different reed strengths. Characteristics such as lip-force/blowing-pressure playability area (total playability area, TPA) and correctly tuned playability area (CTPA) are determined for different reed strengths and note values, and change of tuning as a function of notes is investigated. Apparent differences were observed between mouthpieces of different designs and even between mouthpieces with extremely similar tip openings. The Spirit mouthpiece is louder but requires higher lip force and more adaptation of lip force and of blowing pressure over note ranges. The Concept, with a remarkably similar tip opening and facing length as the S80, allows for a smoother transition between the low and high registers of the instrument and has better tuning stability. The new parameters < TPA > and < CTPA > are introduced as summarizing indicators of mouthpiece characteristics, averaged over note range and reed strength range. Such parameters can be used to define mouthpiece playability objectively and can form important input for parameter-based design improvement or customization.

Hybrid lattice-Boltzmann digital-waveguide simulation of wind instruments

A hybrid lattice-Boltzmann digital-waveguide model is proposed to improve the efficiency of the computational aeroacoustics modeling of wind instruments. The nonlinear sound generator and the assumed linear resonator of a wind instrument are modeled separately using the lattice Boltzmann (LB) method and digital waveguide (DWG) method, correspondingly. Their coupling is achieved through the characteristic boundary condition, which breaks down the lattice Boltzmann solutions at the junction into separated traveling waves along different characteristic lines. The lattice Boltzmann solver then sends the outgoing acoustic wave to the digital waveguide, and receives the incoming acoustic wave to complete the boundary condition. Two examples are tested to demonstrate the validity of the proposed method, including a hybrid cylindrical pipe composed of two coupled cylindrical segments, one represented by LB and the other by DWG, and a hybrid single-reed instrument that comprises an LB mouthpiece-reed system and a DWG pipe.

Numerical investigation of effects of lip stiffness on reed oscillation in a single-reed instrument

The sound of a single-reed instrument is produced by the interactions among flow, reed oscillation, and acoustic resonance in the resonator. To investigate the effects of lip stiffness on the reed oscillation and acoustic propagation in the single-reed instrument, we conduct a flow simulation coupled with a dynamic beam analysis. The flow and acoustic fields are simulated by solving the three-dimensionalNavier–Stokes equations, while the geometry of the instrument is expressed by the volume penalization method in the computational grids. The lip force on the reed is modeled as a function proportional to the distance between the lip position and reed surface, and the coefficient of lip stiffness was changed in the simulation. The mouthpiece of the instrument was set in the pressure chamber. The results showed that the self-sustained oscillation of reed started by adjusting the initial pressure condition of the chamber without the lip force, and amplitudes of the reed displacement decreased until a stable condition by adding the lip force. The lip stiffness was found to affect the amplitude of reed displacement, indicating the necessity of controlling the lip force to obtain stable oscillation.

Global numerical simulation of fluid-structure-acoustic interaction in a single-reed instrument.

A numerical simulation of a single-reed instrument with a pressure chamber is conducted to examine the interaction among the flow, reed oscillation, and acoustic propagation. The flow and acoustic fields are predicted using the three-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes equations, whereas the one-dimensional dynamic beam equation is solved for reed oscillation. The deforming geometry in the aeroacoustic field is expressed by the volume penalization method as an immersed boundary technique. The results showed that the waveforms of the tip opening and far-field acoustic spectra agreed well with those measured experimentally. The three-dimensional flow configuration near the tip opening was visualized, and the measurement of the instantaneous volume flow rate at the tip opening revealed that 30%-40% of the total flow rate passed through the side opening. The spectral tendencies of the time derivatives of the flow rate for different tip openings were consistent with that of the far-field sound, indicating that the slope of the flow rate waveform significantly affects the generated sound's harmonics.

Longitudinal and Transversal Elasticity of Natural and Artificial Materials for Musical Instrument Reeds.

The reed is the primary component in single-reed woodwind instruments to generate the sound. The airflow of the player’s mouth is the energy source and the airflow is modulated by the reed. The oscillations of the reed control the airflow. Traditionally, instrument reeds are made out of natural cane (Arundo Donax), but in efforts to overcome variability problems, synthetic reeds have been introduced. Previous investigations mainly focused on natural cane reeds and direct elasticity measurements did not discriminate between elasticity moduli along different directions. In order to obtain the mechanical properties along the direction of the reed fibres and in the orthogonal direction separately, a three-point bending testing setup was developed, which accommodates the small samples that can be cut from an instrument reed. Static moduli of elasticity were acquired in both directions. Much higher ratios between longitudinal and transversal moduli were seen in the natural cane reed as compared to the artificial reeds. Wet natural reeds showed a strong decrease in moduli of elasticity as compared to dry reeds. Elasticity was significantly higher in artificial reeds. The force–displacement curves of the wet natural reed show hysteresis, whereas the artificial materials did not. In the cane reed, higher energy losses were found in the transversal direction compared to the longitudinal direction

A discourse on the basset horn between 1770 -1850 in Vienna and German-speaking countries

The basset horn is part of the clarinet family and its history begins in the late 18th century. It had at least seventy years lasting period of popularity in Germany and Austria but also in Bohemian countries, and England among other countries. Around 1850 to 1855 the basset horn began to disappear. This is the time period in the history of the basset horn this thesis explores. After an introduction, the beginning chapter will concentrate on different treatises or instructions written for this instrument like Albrechtsberger, Koch, Fröhlich or Mahon, bein compared to the main one, Backofen ’s Klarinett-Anweisung. Next, historical basset horn makers in Austria and other German-speaking countries will be listed and discussed. The fourth chapter deals with famous basset horn players of this era and tries to line up as many details known about them as possible. Also, the phenomenon of the basset clarinet as another additional low single-reed instrument will be investigated. A special focus lies in the following chapter: Mozart’s contribution to the repertoire of the basset horn. This complete list of his works highlights the role of the basset horn and also Mozart’s relationship with the famous player Anton Stadler. A detailed look on his Concerto in G (KV 621b) follows. At last but not least, a general overview of works including the basset horn will be presented. The thesis will finish with a conclusion to show what role the basset horn players had in the music world between 1770-1850 in Austria and other German-speaking countries.

Does playing awind instrument influence tooth position and facial morphology? : Systematic review and meta-analysis.

PurposeTo systematically search the scientific literature concerning the influence of playing a wind instrument on tooth position and/or facial morphology.MethodsThe PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane databases were searched up to September 2019. Orthodontic journals were hand searched and grey literature was sought via Google Scholar. Observational studies and (randomized) controlled clinical trials that assessed tooth position and/or facial morphology by profile cephalograms, dental casts or clinical examination were included. The potential risk of bias was assessed. Data from wind instrument players and controls were extracted. Descriptive analysis and meta-analysis were performed.ResultsIn total, 10 eligible studies with a cross-sectional (n = 7) or longitudinal design (n = 3) and an estimated low to serious risk of bias were included. Sample sizes ranged from 36 to 170 participants, varying from children to professional musicians. Descriptive analysis indicated that adults playing a single-reed instrument may have a larger overjet than controls. Playing a brass instrument might be associated with an increase in maxillary and mandibular intermolar width among children. Longitudinal data showed less increase in anterior facial height among brass and single-reed players between the age of 6 and 15. Children playing a wind instrument showed thicker lips than controls. Meta-analysis revealed that after a follow-up of 6 months to 3 years, children playing brass instruments had a significant reduction in overjet as compared to controls. The magnitude of the effect was of questionable clinical relevance and the generalizability was limited.ConclusionsPlaying a wind instrument can influence tooth position and facial morphology in both children and adults. Aspects that stand out are overjet, arch width, facial divergence/convergence and lip thickness. However, evidence was sparse and the strength of the premise emerging from this review was graded to be “very low”.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s00056-020-00223-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The influence of the vocal tract on the attack transients in clarinet playing

ABSTRACTWhen playing single-reed woodwind instruments, players can modulate the spectral content of the airflow in their vocal tract, upstream of the vibrating reed. In an empirical study with professional clarinettists (), blowing pressure and mouthpiece pressure were measured during the performance of Clarinet Concerto excerpts. By comparing mouth pressure and mouthpiece pressure signals in the time domain, a method to detect instances of vocal tract adjustments was established. Results showed that players tuned their vocal tract in both clarion and altissimo registers. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that vocal tract adjustments support shorter attack transients and help to avoid lower bore resonances.

Investigating Clarinet Articulation Using a Physical Model and an Artificial Blowing Machine

A time-domain physical model is presented that is capable of simulating a variety of articulation techniques in single-reed woodwind instruments and suitable for real-time sound synthesis. Due to the nonlinear nature of the excitation mechanism, an energy-based approach is adopted for the construction of the numerical scheme in order to ensure algorithm stability. To validate the model, measurements are carried out using an artificial blowing machine. The construction of the machine, including a sensor-equipped reed and mouthpiece as well as an automated artificial tongue and lip, is described in detail. By adjusting the motion of the tongue, the blowing machine can generate audio signals corresponding to portato and staccato articulation. These signals are resynthesised following an inverse modelling approach based on the presented physical model, during which model parameters are estimated. All estimated parameters lie in a physically feasible range and may be used for sound synthesis and sound analysis applications.

A new classification of wind instruments: Orofacial considerations

Background/objectivePlaying a wind instrument implies rhythmic jaw movements where the embouchure applies forces with different directions and intensities towards the orofacial structures. These features are relevant when comparing the differences between a clarinettist and a saxophone player embouchure, independently to the fact that both belong to the single-reed instrument group, making therefore necessary to update the actual classification. MethodsLateral cephalograms were taken to single-reed, double-reed and brass instrumentalists with the purpose of analyzing the relationship of the mouthpiece and the orofacial structures. ResultsThe comparison of the different wind instruments showed substantial differences. Therefore the authors purpose a new classification of wind instruments: Class 1 single-reed mouthpiece, division 1– clarinet, division 2 –saxophone; Class 2 double-reed instruments, division 1– oboe, division 2– bassoon; Class 3 cup-shaped mouthpiece, division 1– trumpet and French horn, division 2- trombone and tuba; Class 4 aperture mouthpieces, division 1– flute, division 2 – transversal flute and piccolo. ConclusionsElements such as dental arches, teeth and lips, assume vital importance at a new nomenclature and classification of woodwind instruments that were in the past mainly classified by the type of mouthpiece and not taking into consideration its relationship with their neighboring structures.

Single-reed woodwinds: From physical modeling to sound radiation

Single-reed woodwind instruments have been traditionally used in marching bands, along with brass and percussion instruments. However their sound is often covered by louder instruments, making them less audible to the audience and the members of the band. Indeed, the saxophone has been designed in order to replace the clarinet in military bands, making the woodwind section of the band more prominent. This study discusses the sound generation mechanism of single-reed woodwind instruments in an attempt to investigate which reed and mouthpiece properties significantly affect the amplitude of the radiated sound. To this end, transfer function measurements and numerical investigations using physical modeling are employed. The former may indicate how the use of different mouthpiece geometries and various types of reeds may have an effect on the sound magnitude. The latter can be used to systematically vary reed and embouchure related parameters while observing how changes in these parameters affect the radiated sound.

Investigating vocal tract effects during note transitions on the saxophone

The resonances of the vocal tract are used by single-reed woodwind players for tuning purposes, timbre modification, and other musical effects. Using pressure or impedance measurements, the influence of the vocal tract on saxophone playing has been previously studied for steady tones. This study considers note transitions in which the players might perform vocal tract modifications (e.g., wide intervals) and combines pressure and reed bending measurements to analyze the effect of the vocal tract as well as its dependence on the articulation technique. The measurement setup consists on recording the acoustic pressure in the players' mouth and in the mouthpiece of the instrument. A strain gauge attached to the reed surface captures both the reed oscillations and the tongue-reed interaction due to articulation. Complementary details about the playing technique are obtained by recording the upper teeth force on the mouthpiece and the open-closed configuration of two selected keys. Preliminary results show tha...

Monitoring saxophone reed vibrations using a piezoelectric sensor

In sound production on single-reed woodwind instruments the reed is oscillating in a frequency related to the length of the resonator. Strain gauge sensors attached to single reeds have been used to capture the vibrations of the reed to investigate articulation techniques on saxophone and clarinet. Reeds can be made from natural cane and also from synthetic materials like oriented polymers or layers of fiber-reinforced polymers. Such synthetic reeds allow to integrate sensors inside the reed during manufacture. However, integrated strain gauge sensors produced signals with high noise, which have been shown not to be ideal for amplification purposes. Replacing the integrated strain gauge with a piezo film sensor greatly enhanced the sound quality of the sensor reeds. With this procedure, electronically augmented woodwind instruments may be constructed for performance, acoustic measurements, and music pedagogy feedback systems.

Physics-Based Analysis of Articulatory Player Actions in Single-Reed Woodwind Instruments

Musicians use various articulation techniques during expressive performance. In the case of single-reed woodwind instruments these may involve tongue strokes to the reed or modulation of the blowing pressure. To analyse the emerging transient phenomena, a time-domain physical model of the player-instrument interaction is employed. In order to avoid adding new terms and complexity to the model, the effect of tonguing is simulated by allowing temporal variation of existing, physically meaningful parameters. Experimental measurements show differences between tones separated using the tongue or the blowing pressure and comparisons with numerical simulations are carried out. In particular the synthesised mouthpiece pressure and reed displacement are compared with data obtained under real playing conditions. In an attempt to understand how articulatory actions affect the excitation mechanism of the instrument, the physical model parameters that are required to resynthesise the recorded sounds are estimated. This allows tracking the evolution of parameters that evade direct measurement.

A Minimal Model of a Single-Reed Instrument Producing Quasi-Periodic Sounds

Summary Single-reed instruments can produce multiphonic sounds when they generate quasi-periodic oscillations. The aim of this article is to identify a minimal model of a single reed-instrument producing quasi-periodic oscillations. To better understand the influence of model parameters on the production of quasi-periodic regimes, the mapping between parameters and quasi-periodic regimes is explicitly identified using a support vector machine (SVM) classifier. SVMs enable the construction of boundaries between quasi-periodic and periodic regimes that are explicitly defined in terms of the parameters. Results and conclusions obtained from the numerical model are compared to published experiments related to t he the production of quasi-periodic oscillations with an alto saxophone. This qualitative comparison highlights the influence of key parameters on the production of multiphonic sounds.