Single Higher-order Factor Research Articles

A d factor? Understanding trait distractibility and its relationships with ADHD symptomatology and hyperfocus.

People differ substantially in their vulnerability to distraction. Yet, many types of distractions exist, from external stimulation to internal thoughts. How should we characterize individual differences in their distractibility? Two samples of adult participants (total N = 1220) completed a large battery of questionnaires assessing different facets of real-world distractibility. Latent modeling revealed that these measures could be explained by three correlated-yet-distinct factors: external distraction, unwanted intrusive thoughts, and mind-wandering. Importantly, about 80% of the total variance in these three factors could be explained by a single higher-order factor (d) that could be construed in terms of a person's general distractibility, and this general distractibility model was replicated across the two samples. We then applied the general distractibility model to understand the nature of ADHD symptomatology and hyperfocus (an intense state of long-lasting and highly focused attention). d was substantially associated with self-reported ADHD symptoms. Interestingly, d was also positively associated with hyperfocus, suggesting that hyperfocus may, to some degree, reflect attention problems. These results also show marked consistencies across the two samples. Overall, the study provides an important step toward a comprehensive understanding of individual differences in distractibility and related constructs.

Psychometric Properties of Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form in a Turkish Young Adult Sample

The current study aims to examine the psychometric properties of the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF) in a Turkish young adulthood sample. The study participants comprised 139 Turkish university students in Study 1 and 200 Turkish university students in Study 2. The SCS-SF was translated into Turkish; experts examined the translation studies to check the content validity. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to investigate construct validity in both studies. As with the long version, a six-factor and a single higher-order factor structure of the Shortened Self-Compassion Scale were confirmed in both study 1 and study 2. To check convergent validity, the scores of SCS-SF were compared with the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule scores significant correlations were found. Reliability analyses were conducted to test internal and test-retest reliability and generally yielded acceptable reliability estimates. Thus, as a reliable and valid instrument, the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form can be used to measure the self-compassion level of Turkish young adults as an alternative to the long version of the SCS.

The structure of well-being: a single underlying factor with genetic and environmental influences

PurposeThe structure of well-being has been debated for millennia. Dominant conceptualisations, such as the hedonic and eudaimonic models, emphasise different constituents of the well-being construct. Some previous studies have suggested that the underlying structure of well-being may consist of one or a few general well-being factors. We conducted three studies to advance knowledge on the structure of well-being comprising more than 21,500 individuals, including a genetically informative twin sample.MethodsIn Study 1, we used hierarchical exploratory factor analysis to identify well-being factors in a population-based sample of Norwegian adults. In Study 2, we used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the model fit of the identified factor model in an independent sample. In Study 3, we used biometric models to examine genetic and environmental influences on general well-being factors.ResultsWe identified six well-being factors which all loaded on a single higher-order factor. This higher-order factor may represent a general “happiness factor”, i.e. an h-factor, akin to the p-factor in psychopathology research. The identified factor model had excellent fit in an independent sample. All well-being factors showed moderate genetic and substantial non-shared environmental influence, with heritability estimates ranging from 26% to 40%. Heritability was highest for the higher-order general happiness factor.ConclusionOur findings yield novel insights into the structure of well-being and genetic and environmental influences on general well-being factors, with implications for well-being and mental health research, including genetically informative studies.

Perceived marketization in Poland: Translating key concepts of institutional anomie theory to the micro level

Institutional anomie theory (IAT) describes the potentially criminogenic impact of economically dominated social institutions. Although originally cast at the macro level of society, more efforts have emerged lately to capture the IAT framework on the individual level, resulting in a need for appropriate measures representing the presumed marketization processes. Our study addresses this need by offering a theoretically derived, comprehensive measure of the individual-level instantiation of an anomic culture depicted in IAT, that is, ‘marketized mentality’. Structural equation models testing for the single higher-order factor marketized mentality are calculated with a representative random sample of Poland’s population. Finally, the implications and limitations resulting from the analyses are discussed.

Website Quality in Asia: Testing a Measurement Instrument in a Chinese Context

In this study we investigate the psychometric properties of a Chinese version of a perceived website quality (PWQ) measurement instrument. The results of our study confirmed the four-factor structure of the scale scores and that the scale has good internal consistency. CFA results support the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales scores for the first factor measurement model. Our findings also showed that a single higher-order factor accounts for the variance among the four lower-order factors. In view of its sound psychometric properties, the Chinese version of the PWQ scale is a useful instrument to evaluate website quality in a Chinese context.

The structure of psychopathology and association with poor sleep, self-harm, suicidality, risky sexual behavior, and low self-esteem in a population sample of adolescents.

There is a growing body of evidence highlighting the presence of a single general dimension of psychopathology that can account for multiple associations across mental and substance use disorders. However, relatively little evidence has emerged regarding the validity of this model with respect to a range of factors that have been previously implicated across multiple disorders. The current study utilized a cross-sectional population survey of adolescents (n = 2,003) to examine the extent to which broad psychopathology factors account for specific associations between psychopathology and key validators: poor sleep, self-harm, suicidality, risky sexual behavior, and low self-esteem. Confirmatory factor models, latent class models, and factor mixture models were estimated to identify the best structure of psychopathology. Structural equation models were then estimated to examine the broad and specific associations between each psychopathology indicator and the validators. A confirmatory factor model with three lower-order factors, representing internalizing, externalizing, and psychotic-like experiences, and a single higher-order factor evidenced the best fit. The associations between manifest indicators of psychopathology and validators were largely nonspecific. However, significant and large direct effects were found between several pairwise associations. These findings have implications for the identification of potential targets for intervention and/or tailoring of prevention programs.

A Proposed Definition and Structure of Counselor Dispositions

Dispositions have been identified as critical elements of counselor development and competency. Although there is currently no professional agreement regarding the definition or structure of counselor dispositions, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP 2016) accreditation standards require counselor educators to assess students’ professional dispositions. We endorse the need for a disposition measure that yields reliable and valid scores for use in admissions and gatekeeping processes. We present results of a confirmatory factor analysis of the Professional Dispositions Scale–Counseling Student Version (PDS–CSV), which revealed that counselor dispositions are best understood as a single higher order factor made up of 9 subfactors addressing personal and professional considerations. Based on these findings, we propose a definition of counselor dispositions for consideration by professional colleagues.

Symptom frequency and development of a generic functional disorder symptom scale suitable for use in studies of patients with irritable bowel syndrome, fibromyalgia syndrome or chronic fatigue syndrome

ObjectivesTo describe the extent to which irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) exhibit symptom overlap, and to validate a patient-derived, generic symptom questionnaire. MethodsA patient-derived 61-item symptom-frequency questionnaire was completed by participants recruited through IBS, FMS and CFS self-help websites. Principal axis factor analysis with oblimin rotation was performed separately for those reporting an IBS, FMS or CFS diagnosis. ResultsQuestionnaires were completed by 1751 participants of whom 851 reported more than one of the three diagnoses. Stomach pain on at least a weekly basis was reported by 79% of IBS, 52% of FMS, and 43% of CFS single diagnosis participants. Pain increasing the day after activity was reported by 32% of IBS, 94% of FMS, and 85% of CFS single diagnosis participants. Waking still tired at least once weekly was reported by 75% of IBS, 97% of FMS, and 95% of CFS single diagnosis participants. Exploratory factor analysis produced consistent results across all three diagnostic groups, the 61 items loading on 12 correlated factors with a single higher order factor on which all items loaded. Frequency analysis led to the rejection of one item (cold sores on or near lips), and freeform reporting by participants of additional symptoms identified an additional five, namely, restless legs, hair loss/brittle hair/thinning, dizziness/balance problems, blurred vision and urination problems. ConclusionsIBS, FMS and CFS are polysymptomatic spectrum disorders with a wide range of overlapping symptoms, many of which are unrelated to diagnostic criteria. Frequency analysis and factor analysis confirm the validity of using the same questionnaire across different diagnostic categories. The 65-item general symptom questionnaire (GSQ-65) is a valid generic symptom scale suitable for assessing the many different symptoms of people with IBS, FMS and CFS.

Individual differences in object recognition.

There is substantial evidence for individual differences in personality and cognitive abilities, but we lack clear intuitions about individual differences in visual abilities. Previous work on this topic has typically compared performance with only 2 categories, each measured with only 1 task. This approach is insufficient for demonstration of domain-general effects. Most previous work has used familiar object categories, for which experience may vary between participants and categories, thereby reducing correlations that would stem from a common factor. In Study 1, we adopted a latent variable approach to test for the first time whether there is a domain-general object recognition ability, o. We assessed whether shared variance between latent factors representing performance for each of 5 novel object categories could be accounted for by a single higher-order factor. On average, 89% of the variance of lower-order factors denoting performance on novel object categories could be accounted for by a higher-order factor, providing strong evidence for o. Moreover, o also accounted for a moderate proportion of variance in tests of familiar object recognition. In Study 2, we assessed whether the strong association across categories in object recognition is due to third-variable influences. We find that o has weak to moderate associations with a host of cognitive, perceptual, and personality constructs and that a clear majority of the variance in and covariance between performance on different categories is independent of fluid intelligence. This work provides the first demonstration of a reliable, specific, and domain-general object recognition ability, and suggest a rich framework for future work in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Spearman's g found in 31 non-Western nations: Strong evidence that g is a universal phenomenon.

Spearman's g is the name for the shared variance across a set of intercorrelating cognitive tasks. For some-but not all-theorists, g is defined as general intelligence. While g is robustly observed in Western populations, it is questionable whether g is manifested in cognitive data from other cultural groups. To test whether g is a cross-cultural phenomenon, we searched for correlation matrices or data files containing cognitive variables collected from individuals in non-Western, nonindustrialized nations. We subjected these data to exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using promax rotation and 2 modern methods of selecting the number of factors. Samples that produced more than 1 factor were then subjected to a second-order EFA using the same procedures and a Schmid-Leiman solution. Across 97 samples from 31 countries totaling 52,340 individuals, we found that a single factor emerged unambiguously from 71 samples (73.2%) and that 23 of the remaining 26 samples (88.5%) produced a single second-order factor. The first factor in the initial EFA explained an average of 45.9% of observed variable variance (SD = 12.9%), which is similar to what is seen in Western samples. One sample that produced multiple second-order factors only did so with 1 method of selecting the number of factors in the initial EFA; the alternate method of selecting the number of factors produced a single higher-order factor. Factor extraction in a higher-order EFA was not possible in 2 samples. These results show that g appears in many cultures and is likely a universal phenomenon in humans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Interpersonal Mindfulness: Scale Development and Initial Construct Validation

Existing trait mindfulness scales primarily assess mindfulness as it occurs outside interpersonal contexts. To more fully understand the possible relational benefits of mindfulness, the authors propose the construct of interpersonal mindfulness—mindfulness as it occurs during interpersonal interactions. The current work describes psychometric development and evaluation of an individual difference measure of interpersonal mindfulness, the interpersonal mindfulness scale (IMS). Exploratory and confirmatory multigroup factor analyses across five independent samples (N = 2085) revealed a hierarchical solution in which four first-order factors were components of a single higher-order interpersonal mindfulness factor. The four resulting subscales were named Presence, Awareness of Self and Others, Nonjudgmental Acceptance, and Nonreactivity. Study 2 showed acceptable test–retest reliability of the IMS over a 1-month period, and study 3 revealed that, among experienced meditation practitioners, greater years of meditation practice, frequency of meditation practice, and number of meditation retreats attended were associated with higher IMS scores. Study 4 provided evidence for convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the IMS using partial correlations, partialling out the shared variance of trait mindfulness, with intrapersonal, interpersonal, and relationship functioning variables. The value of this measure and construct for stimulating future research on the social consequences of being mindful while interacting with others is discussed with special regard to understanding the context of healthy relationships.

Investigating right wing authoritarianism with a very short authoritarianism scale

Authoritarianism has been an important explanatory concept for more than 60 years and a powerful predictor of social, political, and intergroup attitudes and behaviour. An important impediment to research on authoritarianism has been the length of the measures available, particularly with the contemporary emphasis on the need for social research to use larger, more representative samples and measure multiple constructs across multiple domains. We therefore developed a six-item Very Short Authoritarianism (VSA) scale that equally represented the three content subdimensions and two directions of wording of Altemeyer’s widely used Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) scale. Over four samples (N = 1,601) from three countries the VSA scale showed satisfactory internal consistency and the expected hierarchical factor structure with three primary factors loading on a single higher-order factor. Additionally, the scale predicted variables such as nationalism, ethnocentrism, political orientation, political party/candidate support, attitudes towards ingroups or outgroups and anti-minority bias at moderate to strong levels with effects very close to those obtained for much longer established measures of RWA (including Altemeyer’s scale). The VSA scale also showed clearly better reliability and validity than a short measure of authoritarian parental values that has been used to measure authoritarianism.

Assessing Alexithymia: Psychometric Properties and Factorial Invariance of the 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale in Nonclinical and Psychiatric Samples

The 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) is a self-report questionnaire designed to measure the three components of alexithymia; difficulty identifying feelings in the self (DIF), difficulty describing feelings (DDF), and externally orientated thinking (EOT). We examined the scale’s psychometric properties in Australian nonclinical (N = 428) and psychiatric (N = 156) samples. In terms of factorial validity, confirmatory factor analyses found the traditional 3-factor correlated model (DIF, DDF, EOT) to be the best and most parsimonious solution, but it did not reach adequate levels of goodness-of-fit in either sample. Several EOT items loaded poorly on their intended factor, and a reverse-scored item method factor was present; the factor structure of the scale was invariant across both samples. A higher-order factor model (with a single higher-order factor) was slightly inferior to the correlated models, but still tenable. The total scale score and DIF and DDF subscales displayed sound internal consistency, but the EOT subscale did not. We conclude that the TAS-20 has, for the most part, adequate psychometric properties, though interpretation should focus only on the total scale score and DIF and DDF subscales; we recommend the EOT subscale score not be used. Implications for clinical use and future revision of the scale are discussed.

Development and preliminary validation of a post-fistula repair reintegration instrument among Ugandan women

BackgroundObstetric fistula is a debilitating and traumatic birth injury affecting 2–3 million women globally, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Affected women suffer physically, psychologically and socioeconomically. International efforts have increased access to surgical treatment, yet attention to a holistic outcome of post-surgical rehabilitation is nascent. We sought to develop and pilot test a measurement instrument to assess post-surgical family and community reintegration.MethodsWe conducted an exploratory sequential mixed-methods study, beginning with 16 in-depth interviews and four focus group discussions with 17 women who underwent fistula surgery within two previous years to inform measure development. The draft instrument was validated in a longitudinal cohort of 60 women recovering from fistula surgery. Qualitative data were analyzed through thematic analysis. Socio-demographic characteristics were described using one-way frequency tables. We used exploratory factor analysis to determine the latent structure of the scale, then tested the fit of a single higher-order latent factor. We evaluated internal consistency and temporal stability reliability through Raykov’s ρ and Pearson’s correlation coefficient, respectively. We estimated a series of linear regression models to explore associations between the standardized reintegration measure and validated scales representing theoretically related constructs.ResultsThemes central to women’s experiences following surgery included resuming mobility, increasing social interaction, improved self-esteem, reduction of internalized stigma, resuming work, meeting their own needs and the needs of dependents, meeting other expected and desired roles, and negotiating larger life issues. We expanded the Return to Normal Living Index to reflect these themes. Exploratory factor analysis suggested a four-factor structure, titled ‘Mobility and social engagement’, ‘Meeting family needs’, ‘Comfort with relationships’, and ‘General life satisfaction’, and goodness of fit statistics supported a higher-order latent variable of ‘Reintegration.’ Reintegration score correlated significantly with quality of life, depression, self-esteem, stigma, and social support in theoretically expected directions.ConclusionAs more women undergo surgical treatment for obstetric fistula, attention to the post-repair period is imperative. This preliminary validation of a reintegration instrument represents a first step toward improving measurement of post-surgical reintegration and has important implications for the evidence base of post-surgical reintegration epidemiology and the development and evaluation of fistula programming.

Validation and psychometric properties of the commitment to hip protectors (C-HiP) index in long-term care providers of British Columbia, Canada: a cross-sectional survey

BackgroundIf worn during a fall, hip protectors substantially reduce risk for hip fracture. However, a major barrier to their clinical efficacy is poor user adherence. In long-term care, adherence likely depends on how committed care providers are to hip protectors, but empirical evidence is lacking due to the absence of a psychometrically valid assessment tool.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey in a convenience sample of 529 paid care providers. We developed the 15-item C-HiP Index to measure commitment, comprised of three subscales: affective, cognitive and behavioural. Responses were subjected to hierarchical factor analysis and internal consistency testing. Eleven experts rated the relevance and clarity of items on 4-point Likert scales. We performed simple linear regression to determine whether C-HiP Index scores were positively related to the question, “Do you think of yourself as a champion of hip protectors”, rated on a 5-point Likert scale. We examined whether the C-HiP Index could differentiate respondents: (i) who were aware of a protected fall causing hip fracture from those who were unaware; (ii) who agreed in the existence of a champion of hip protectors within their home from those who didn’t.ResultsHierarchical factor analysis yielded two lower-order factors and a single higher-order factor, representing the overarching concept of commitment to hip protectors. Items from affective and cognitive subscales loaded highest on the first lower-order factor, while items from the behavioural subscale loaded highest on the second. We eliminated one item due to low factor matrix coefficients, and poor expert evaluation. The C-HiP Index had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.96. A one-unit increase in championing was associated with a 5.2-point (p < 0.01) increase in C-HiP Index score. Median C-HiP Index scores were 4.3-points lower (p < 0.01) among respondents aware of a protected fall causing hip fracture, and 7.0-points higher (p < 0.01) among respondents who agreed in the existence of a champion of hip protectors within their home.ConclusionsWe offer evidence of the psychometric properties of the C-HiP Index. The development of a valid and reliable assessment tool is crucial to understanding the factors that govern adherence to hip protectors in long-term care.

Development and Validation of the Modified Patient-Centered Medical Home Assessment for the Comprehensive Primary Care Initiative.

To describe the modified Patient-Centered Medical Home Assessment (M-PCMH-A) survey module developed to track primary care practices' care delivery approaches over time, assess whether its underlying factor structure is reliable, and produce factor scores that provide a more reliable summary measure of the practice's care delivery than would a simple average of question responses. Survey data collected from diverse practices participating in the Comprehensive Primary Care (CPC) initiative in 2012 (n=497) and 2014 (n=493) and matched comparison practices in 2014 (n=423). Confirmatory factor analysis. Thirty-eight questions organized in six domains: Access and Continuity of Care, Planned Care for Chronic Conditions and Preventive Care, Risk-Stratified Care Management, Patient and Caregiver Engagement, Coordination of Care across the Medical Neighborhood, and Continuous Data-Driven Improvement. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested using seven factors (splitting one domain into two), reassigning two questions to different domain factors, and removing one question, resulting in high reliability, construct validity, and stability in all but one factor. The seven factors together formed a single higher-order factor summary measure. Factor scores guard against potential biases from equal weighting. The M-PCMH-A can validly and reliably track primary care delivery across practices and over time using factors representing seven key components of care as well as an overall score. Researchers should calculate factor loadings for their specific data if possible, but average scores may be suitable if they cannot use factor analysis due to resource or sample constraints.

Assessing Pain Anxiety in Adolescents: Further Evidence for the Utility of the Child Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale.

Emotional responses to pain are known to play an important role in the development and maintenance of pain. To better understand the role that pain anxiety plays in chronic pain, as well as to evaluate treatments that might treat it effectively, reliable and valid measures of pain anxiety are needed. Thus, the aim of this study was to provide additional evidence regarding the psychometric properties of the Child Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (CPASS) in a sample of adolescents. A total of 357 adolescents ages 12 to 19 years completed measures of pain anxiety (CPASS), pain-related catastrophizing (PCS-C), anxiety sensitivity (CASI), and sleep quality (NRS-Sleep). We used confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the factor structure of CPASS items. We also tested the reliability and the validity of CPASS scores. Confirmatory factor analyses suggested a 4-factor structure with a single higher-order factor (CFI=0.91, TLI=0.95, RMSEA=0.078). The total score of CPASS showed good internal consistency (α=0.87) and adequate validity as evidenced by (1) moderate to high correlations between CPASS-PCS-C (r=0.74, P<0.001) and CPASS-CASI (r=0.48, P<0.001) and (2) the magnitude of the correlations between CPASS-PCS-C and CPASS-CASI being significantly greater than that between CPASS and NRS-Sleep (z=14.70 and 8.96, respectively; P<0.001). The findings support the reliability and the validity of CPASS as a measure of pain-related anxiety in adolescents.

Replication and Validation of the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire in a Large Sample of Canadian Undergraduates.

Undergraduate students experience diverse problems because of alcohol use. Accordingly, the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ) was developed to assess multiple domains of alcohol-related problems. A preliminary psychometric evaluation in a U.S. college sample showed support for 8 factors that were invariant across gender and that loaded onto a single higher-order alcohol-related problems factor. Supporting concurrent validity, this preliminary work also found that YAACQ total scores correlated with heavy alcohol use. While these results are promising, the factor structure of the YAACQ has yet to be replicated. This goal of this study was to test the psychometrics of the YAACQ in a large Canadian student sample. Invariance across gender, year of study, place of residence, and relative drinking level was examined. Correlations between the YAACQ subscales and alcohol use measures were investigated to test concurrent validity. Students (N=1,103, 80% women) completed online self-reports. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported an 8-factor lower-order structure, with all factors loading onto a single higher-order alcohol-related problems factor. Multigroup CFAs supported measurement invariance across gender, year of study, place of residence, and relative drinking level. YAACQ subscales were positively correlated with weekly alcohol use and binge drinking. Our study provides an important replication of the psychometrics of the YAACQ in a new sample, and we extend previous work by presenting novel tests of measurement invariance across meaningful groups in young adulthood. Overall, our study suggests that the 48-item YAACQ is a valid measure of alcohol-related problems in Canadian students.

The dimensionality of trust-relevant constructs in four institutional domains: results from confirmatory factor analyses

ABSTRACTUsing confirmatory factor analyses and multiple indicators per construct, we examined a number of theoretically derived factor structures pertaining to numerous trust-relevant constructs (from 9 to 12) across four institutional contexts (police, local governance, natural resources, state governance) and multiple participant-types (college students via an online survey, community residents as part of a city's budget engagement activity, a random sample of rural landowners, and a national sample of adult Americans via an Amazon Mechanical Turk study). Across studies, a number of common findings emerged. First, the best fitting models in each study maintained separate factors for each trust-relevant construct. Furthermore, post hoc analyses involving addition of higher-order factors tended to fit better than collapsing of factors. Second, dispositional trust was easily distinguishable from the other trust-related constructs, and positive and negative constructs were often distinguishable. However, the items reflecting positive trust attitude constructs or positive trustworthiness perceptions showed low discriminant validity. Differences in findings between studies raise questions warranting further investigation in future research, including differences in correlations among latent constructs varying from very high (e.g. 12 inter-factor correlations above .9 in Study 2) to more moderate (e.g. only three correlations above .8 in Study 4). Further, the results from one study (Study 4) suggested that legitimacy, fairness, and voice were especially highly correlated and may form a single higher-order factor, but the other studies did not. Future research is needed to determine when and why different higher-order factor structures may emerge in different institutional contexts or with different samples.

Latent dimensions of social anxiety disorder: A re-evaluation of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)

The Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN; Connor et al., 2000) is a well-validated instrument for assessing severity of social anxiety disorder (SAD). However, evaluations of its factor structure have produced inconsistent results and this aspect of the scale requires further study. Primary care patients with SAD (N=397) completed the SPIN as part of baseline assessment for the Coordinated Anxiety Learning and Management study (Roy-Byrne et al., 2010). These data were used for exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the SPIN. A 3-factor model provided the best fit for the data and factors were interpreted as Fear of Negative Evaluation, Fear of Physical Symptoms, and Fear of Uncertainty in Social Situations. Tests of a second-order model showed that the three factors loaded strongly on a single higher-order factor that was labeled Social Anxiety. Findings are consistent with theories identifying Fear of Negative Evaluation as the core feature of SAD, and with evidence that anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty further contribute to SAD severity.