Single Category Implicit Association Test Research Articles

Investigating the Implicit and Explicit Attitudes of Primary School Educators in Scotland Towards Autistic Children

ABSTRACT Autistic children are frequently taught in mainstream schools, and in Scotland, policy aims for inclusion. This study investigated Scottish educators’ implicit and explicit attitudes towards autistic children and aimed to understand the relationships between attitudes, knowledge and experience. Seventy primary school educators working in Scotland took part. Participants completed a Single-Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) to assess implicit attitudes. They also completed two explicit attitude measures (openness to autism and cognitive attitudes), and measures of knowledge and level of contact. Overall, participants held positive attitudes in explicit attitude measures. Around half had positive implicit attitudes, but a quarter had either neutral or negative implicit attitudes. There were correlations between explicit attitudes, age and years of experience, with older, more experienced staff having more negative attitudes. Young educators with less experience may have more positive attitudes, perhaps reflecting societal changes in perceptions of autism. In regression analyses, greater autism knowledge predicted more positive cognitive attitudes towards autistic children, suggesting that targeting knowledge may improve attitudes. Scotland’s policies may have the potential to support the effective inclusion of autistic pupils in schools.

The relationship between explicit and implicit educational values and learning burnout among senior high school students

This study aimed to demonstrate the relationship between explicit and implicit educational values and learning burnout among senior high school students in China. Using stratified cluster sampling, 768 students from six high schools participated in a survey on explicit educational values and learning burnout. The Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) explored students’ implicit attitudes toward educational values. The results showed that an emphasis on economic benefit was placed first among all explicit educational values. In contrast, the external value of education was more likely to be recognized in implicit educational values. Explicit and implicit educational values were significantly negatively correlated with learning burnout. However, there were no significant correlations between the explicit and implicit educational values, suggesting that the two belong to relatively independent psychological structures.

Interfering implicit attitudes of adopting recycled products from construction wastes

The rapid growth of the construction industry has led to significant environmental issues, notably the sharp escalation in construction waste. Recent endeavors have prioritized on recycling and reusing of construction waste. Nevertheless, despite the evident public support, the adoption of recycled products remains constrained, primarily as a result of subsequent unfavorable implicit perceptions. To understand the end users’ implicit attitudes, this study employed a Single-Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for analysis. The experiment results confirm the existence of detrimental implicit attitudes, even as self-reported attitudes remained positive. The experiment results, D-scores, suggest that emotional interventions have stronger impact as they reach peak (15.9s) 36% faster that the rational interventions. The proposed implicit attitude measurement approach can be extended to understand and promote other green products and recycled materials.

The impact of patients’ hostile attribution bias on aggression in doctor-patient interactions

BackgroundDoctor-patient conflict is trending in social attention research. However, the existing literature rarely explores whether a patient's hostile attribution bias (HAB) in the doctor-patient interaction affects the aggression level against doctors. ObjectiveThis study aimed to explore the relationship and mechanism between different types of HAB and aggression in patients. MethodIn Study 1, 80 patients completed the word sentence association paradigm for hostility (WSAP-Hostility), and their explicit and implicit aggression levels were measured using the hot sauce paradigm and the single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT), respectively. In Study 2, 63 patients were randomly divided into an experimental (rejection) and a control group. Their state hostile attribution bias (SHAB) was activated through social rejection materials. They completed the SHAB questionnaire and anger expression inventory, and their explicit and implicit aggression levels were measured as in Study 1. ResultsIn both studies, results indicated that patients' trait and state HAB were significantly related to explicit aggression but not implicit aggression. Hostile interpretation positively predicted explicit aggression, whereas benign interpretation had a negative predictive effect on explicit aggression. Patients’ anger played a mediating role between SHAB and explicit aggression. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that patients' HAB affects explicit aggression toward doctors and anger plays a mediating role.

Contact with grandparents and young people’s explicit and implicit attitudes toward older adults

BackgroundGiven the dramatic rise in population aging and widespread negative attitudes toward older people, it is necessary to understand the factors that affect age-related attitudes among young people in order to improve intergenerational solidarity and reduce ageism. The current study examined young people’s contact with their grandparents and attitudes toward older people on both explicit and implicit levels.MethodThe sample included 146 Chinese college students (Mage = 21.50 yrs, SD = 2.23, 101 females). Participants completed a questionnaire concerning contact with their grandparents(contact quantity and contact quality), perceived typicality of their grandparents, intergroup anxiety, inclusion of other in the self, and explicit attitudes toward older people (aged 65 years or older) in general. Participants were also invited to complete a single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT) to assess their implicit attitudes toward older people.ResultsThe findings indicated that both quantity and quality of contact with grandparents predicted better explicit attitudes toward older people, and contact effects were stronger when one’s grandparents were perceived as being typical of older adults. Contact quantity (not quality) was associated with more favorable implicit attitudes only when one’s grandparents were perceived as highly typical older adults. Contact effects on explicit attitudes were mediated by intergroup anxiety and inclusion of other in the self.ConclusionOur findings on the positive effects of contact with grandparents underscore the importance of promoting intergenerational contact within the family as a starting point to reduce prejudice toward older adults in age-segregated modern societies. Current results also provide insights on how to extend the benefits of grandparent-grandchild contact outside the family by promoting the perceived typicality of one’s grandparents.

Outcome Expectations in Psychotherapy: Validation of the Therapy Single Category Implicit Association Test (Therapy SC-IAT)

BackgroundFormer studies demonstrated that negative outcome expectations (OE) toward psychotherapy predict unfavorable psychotherapy outcomes. Critically, the measurement of OE is limited to direct measures that could be subject to self-presentational distortions. This study aimed to validate an online single category implicit association test (SC-IAT) to measure OE toward psychotherapy indirectly.MethodsWe conducted three direct measures of OE, the Therapy SC-IAT, and a (control) Flower SC-IAT in a large sample (N = 705).ResultsThe Therapy SC-IAT correlated with most direct measures of OE (convergent validity) but not with measures of flower associations (discriminant validity). In exploratory analyses, we found that direct and indirect measurements of OE were related to prior experiences with psychotherapy.ConclusionWe discuss ways to improve the indirect-direct correlations and suggest that our newly developed indirect measure could complement the assessment of expectations in research and clinical practice.

Implicit weight stigma and bullying perpetration in college students: The mediating role of explicit weight stigma and moral disengagement and the moderating role of empathy

AbstractThe current study aims to examine the mediational effects of explicit weight stigma and moral disengagement (MD) and moderating effects of empathy on the relationship between implicit weight stigma and bullying perpetration. Two hundred and twenty‐eight college students (112 men, mean age of 19.89 ± 1.82 years) completed implicit (the Single Category Implicit Association Test) and explicit (the development of the weight stigma scale) measures of weight stigma, and responded to questionnaires regarding MD, empathy, and bullying perpetration. Structural equation modeling was conducted and mediating effects were tested using AMOS 17.0 software. The results indicated that implicit weight stigma significantly predicted bullying perpetration. After controlling for gender, this association was jointly mediated by explicit weight stigma and MD. Furthermore, empathy moderated the relationship between implicit weight stigma and bullying perpetration. Specifically, college students who have high levels of implicit weight stigma and low levels of empathy would score higher on the bully questionnaire. These findings may provide a possible explanation for when and how implicit weight stigma relates to bullying perpetration.

Counter-stereotype intervention for construction and demolition waste recycling products: A functional near infrared spectroscopy study

The generation and stock of construction and demolition (C&D) waste is increasing, which makes the environmental and economic problems serious. In recent years, China has also launched many policies to encourage and guide C&D waste recycling. However, most of these policies are aimed at contractors and recycling utilization parties, while the lack of publicity and promotion has led to the acceptance in the market is generally low. People may have a negative stereotype of this recycled material recycled from C&D waste.In order to explore a measure that can alleviate this problem, this study used experimental research methods from psychology and neuroscience to investigate the mechanisms of different presentation forms of counter-stereotype intervention materials. This study included two experiments: the pretest experiment verified the implicit-explicit stereotype and neuronal image representation of C&D recycling products through single category implicit association test (SC-IAT), semantic difference scale and functional near-infrared (fNIRS). The posttest experiment was based on the counter-stereotype intervention method and intergroup contact theory. A within-participants design was used to investigate the effectiveness of counter-stereotype intervention and the differences in two intervene presentation forms based on the pretest experiment.The results showed that the counter-stereotype intervention was effective in suppressing the activation of stereotypes. The effects of the intervention were similar for both the video and graphic formats. In the neuron imaging representation of the posttest experiment, the significantly activated brain region shifted from the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (R-dlPFC) to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-dlPFC). L-dlPFC is highly associated with the modulation of cognition, indicating that after the counter-stereotype intervention, the necessity of C&D waste recycling and the credibility of the recycling product influenced the participants. So when the stereotype was reactivated, the signal in the L-dlPFC was suppressed, weakening the expression of the stereotype. This also suggests that the mechanism of counter-stereotype intervention is to strengthen the brain regulatory system rather than to inhibit the activation of stereotypes at the source.

Opposite effects of estradiol and progesterone on woman's disgust processing.

Ovarian hormones play a critical role in emotion processing, which may be a major reason for the high rates of major depressive disorders in women. However, the exact roles of estradiol and progesterone in emotional processing remain unclear. To this end, we performed behavioral and rs-fMRI studies on the effects ovarian hormones on disgust emotion. In Experiment 1, 95 Chinese female undergraduates completed the single category implicit association test (SC-IAT) and explicit measures of disgust intensity task, 32 in the menstrual phase, 30 in the follicular phase, and 33 in the luteal phase. In Experiment 2, A total of 25 healthy female undergraduates completed three sessions of the rs-fMRI. The menstrual group was scanned during cycle days 2-5, the follicular group during cycle during days 10-13, and the luteal group was scanned 3-7 days before the next menstruation. The behavioral results showed that women during the luteal phase had higher D scores and shorter response times (RTs) to disgust stimuli compared to the menses and follicular phases. In contrast, women during the follicular phase had fewer feelings of disgust and longer RTs to pathogen stimuli compared with that during the menses and luteal phases, but this effect was moderated by the intensity of the stimuli. rs-fMRI studies showed that women during the luteal phase have higher functional connectivity in the salience network than those in the follicular phase. Compared with the menstrual phase, women have lower functional connectivity in the amygdala during the follicular phase. In summary, a more negative attitude to disgust stimuli and the enhanced functional connectivity of the salience network during the luteal phase may be associated with high progesterone levels, whereas lower disgust feelings and reduced functional connectivity of the amygdala during the follicular phase may be associated with high estradiol levels.

Implicit Attitudes of New-Type Drug Abstainers towards New-Type Drugs and Their Relapse Tendencies.

Over the last decade, new-type drugs have been replacing traditional-type drugs in China. However, studies of implicit attitudes towards new-type drugs are insufficient and contradictory results exist. Previous studies have suggested that implicit attitudes and relapse tendencies are a dual structure model, but that is for traditional or mixed drug addicts. For new drug addicts, is the dual structure model completely suitable or partially supported? This study attempts to explore this point. At a drug rehabilitation center, we randomly selected 50 abstainers (25 males and 25 females; age range: 21-41 years) who only took new-type drugs prior to abstention to participate in this study. Participants complete the General Situation Questionnaire, the Drug Use Characteristics Questionnaire, the Drug Relapse Risk Scale (DRRS), and the Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT). The relationship between implicit attitudes and relapse tendencies of new-type drug abstainers towards new-type drugs was investigated. The results showed: (1) abstainers had negative attitudes towards new-type drugs, and the data had statistical correlation with abstainers' drug use characteristics and each relapse risk index; (2) females held relatively positive implicit attitudes towards new-type drugs; (3) being female and divorced could significantly predict abstainers' implicit attitudes; (4) there is no significant correlation between implicit attitudes and relapse tendencies of new-type drug abstainers towards new-type drugs, which partially supports the dual structure model; (5) fender influences the self-assessment of relapse probability. Compared with traditional or mixed drug addicts, the dual structure model is only partially supported for new-type drug abstainers towards new-type drugs. That is because being female and divorced are the main factors influencing implicit attitudes and relapse tendencies. A few women or divorced people regard consuming new drugs as the source of happiness and forget the harm brought by the drugs themselves in their implicit attitude, which leads to more drug abuse in their explicit behavior. Therefore, we should pay more attention to women who have become new-type drug addicts and pay special attention to the impact of divorce.

A Comparative Investigation of the Predictive Validity of Four Indirect Measures of Bias and Prejudice.

Although measures of implicit associations are influential in the prejudice literature, comparative tests of the predictive power of these measures are lacking. A large-scale (N > 100,000) analysis of four commonly used measures-the Implicit Association Test (IAT), Single-Category IAT (SC-IAT), evaluative priming task (EPT), and sorting paired features task (SPF)-across 10 intergroup domains and 250 outcomes found clear evidence for the superiority of the SC-IAT in predictive and incremental predictive validity. Follow-up analyses suggested that the SC-IAT benefited from an exclusive focus on associations toward stigmatized group members, as associations toward non-stigmatized group members diluted the predictive strength of relative measures like the IAT, SPF, and EPT. These results highlight how conclusions about predictive validity can vary drastically depending on the measure selected and reveal novel insights about the value of different measures when focusing on predictive than convergent validity.

Investigating the implicit stereotypes of recycled construction and demolition waste products with an fNIRS-enabled single category implicit association test

The construction industry makes a major contribution to the growth of cities and yet produces enormous waste. Construction and demolition wastes can be recycled and reused, but their products are still challenged by the market. Many researchers blame the negative stereotype of cycled products, however, people show supportive opinions on recycled products in questionnaires. This study designed a single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT) and deployed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) device for direct measurement. The SC-IAT response times, semantic survey scores, and fNIRS blood oxygen concentration were used to quantitatively reflect the implicit impression of the recycled products. The calibrated β value based on the general linear regression analysis and D-scores were used to capture the cognitive conflicts and assess the implicit stereotypes. After a predesigned experiment, a negative stereotype was observed based on the prolonged response time. The high HbO concentration level in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the frontal oculomotor area also suggests a cognitive conflict in the “positive words + self words” group. These outcomes demonstrate that fNIRS can supplement the SC-IAT and reveals the implicit cognitive attitudes toward recycled products.

Explicit and implicit attitudes toward smoking: Dissociation of attitudes and different characteristics for an implicit attitude in smokers and nonsmokers.

Smoking is a global health risk for premature death and disease. Recently, addictive behaviors, like smoking, were considered to be guided by explicit and implicit processes. The existence of a dissociation between the two attitudes in nonsmokers and the causes of the differences in implicit attitudes toward smoking have not been fully investigated. We investigated the explicit and implicit attitudes toward smoking via a self-reported scale and the single category implicit association test (SC-IAT), respectively, among undergraduate and graduate health sciences students. In addition, we applied the drift-diffusion model (DDM) on the SC-IAT and examined the behavioral characteristics that caused differences in implicit attitude toward smoking between smokers and nonsmokers. The results showed the existence of a dissociation between explicit and implicit attitudes toward smoking among nonsmokers. In addition, nonsmokers had a higher decision threshold than smokers and a higher drift rate in the condition where negative words were associated with smoking. Nonsmokers engaged in SC-IAT with more cautious attitudes and responded more easily in a negative condition since it was consistent with their true attitudes. Conversely, smokers did not show a significant difference in the drift rate between the conditions. These results suggested that the differences in an implicit attitude between smokers and nonsmokers were caused by differences in evidence accumulation speed between the positive and negative conditions. The existence of dissociation between implicit and explicit attitudes toward smoking may indicate the difficulty of measuring true attitude in nonsmokers in a questionnaire survey. Additionally, the DDM results explained the difference of implicit attitude between smokers and nonsmokers; it may provide information on the mechanisms of addictive behaviors and a basis for therapy. However, whether these results are affected by cultural differences requires further investigation.

Cognitive categorization of new hybrid products and implicit attitude formation: Empirical study of sensory stimulation

According to social psychology researchers, categorizing a new product may involve the formation of automatic judgments at the subconscious level. This study aimed to ascertain if attitudes might be formed unintentionally when categorizing a new hybrid product under the effect of associated sensory inputs. Data were collected using an explicit and implicit approach: an explicit categorization measure, an explicit attitude scale, and the “Single Category Implicit Association Test’’ (SC-IAT), from 280 Moroccan university students having a normal sense of smell and taste, under the effects of two types of sensory stimuli (smell and taste) and according to two learning conditions linked to two categories of existing products. The data were then computed and processed using the “Statistical Package for Social Sciences” and the “Inquisit Lab’’. The study’s findings revealed that the respondents were able to categorize the new product into one of the targeted categories (depending on the learning condition of each category) after exposure to sensory stimuli (olfactory and gustatory stimuli) related to this product and were also able to form an implicit and explicit attitude towards it. The occurrence of the categorization process and the formation of these two distinct types of attitudes can be explained by the olfactory and gustatory sensory stimulation during the experiment, which helped the participants recognize the basic domain of the new product and then transfer knowledge and affects to it.

Associations Between Cardiovascular Reactivity and Automatic Evaluation of Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors

Effort mobilization, or the amount of resources individuals mobilize to execute behavior, is central to the dual-process theory. One’s evaluation or perception of task difficulty (target behavior) is directly related to effort. Automatic or habitual behaviors require little effort, while reflective or controlled processes require greater effort mobilization, and even greater effort when behavioral automaticity and the goal task conflict. Cardiovascular (CV) reactivity to cognitive challenge is an objective and reliable measure of effort mobilization, but has yet to be evaluated in the automatic evaluation (AE) of PA behavior. PURPOSE: To explore relationships among CV reactivity, AE and reflective measures of PA behavior. METHODS: This pilot study includes a subset of 30 subjects (57% women, 24±10 y, 27±5 kg/m2) from a larger project examining interactions between AE and reflective processes in relation to PA behavior. A computerized test (Single Category Implicit Association Test [SCIAT]) was used to measure AE of PA behaviors (positive scores reflected positive AE of the target behavior). Heart rate (HR) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) were measured continuously and noninvasively using a finger cuff. CV reactivity was quantified using average values obtained during the SCIAT and percentage change (∆) from rest. Accelerometers measured habitual PA (min/d) and questionnaires captured reflective PA outcomes (e.g., intention, enjoyment). Bivariate correlations were used to explore the relationships among variables (α=0.05). RESULTS: SBP during the SCIAT correlated with habitual PA (r=0.41). HR during the SCIAT correlated with intention to perform exercise (r=-0.51) and PA enjoyment scale (r=-0.56), while ∆HR correlated with light intensity PA SCIAT scores (r=-0.40; all p≤0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Lower CV reactivity during the SCIAT was related to positive AE toward PA behavior and greater PA intention, suggesting that these subjects found PA stimuli to be less stressful (required less effort). Conversely, CV reactivity was higher among those with positive AE toward sedentary behavior, suggesting that PA stimuli was more stressful (required greater effort). By focusing efforts on changing how individuals perceive PA, future PA guidelines may be more successful in increasing long-term PA adherence.

Interaction Between Automatic And Reflective Processes In The Prediction Of Accelerometer-derived PA Behaviors

Grounded in dual process theories related to physical activity (PA) behavior, both reflective and automatic processes have been shown to predict PA. However, relatively little is known about the interaction or relative contributions of these two processing systems in relation to PA behavior, and even less is known about how individual factors alter these relationships. PURPOSE: To examine the relationships among automatic and reflective processes (i.e., PA intentions) across four different PA domains (i.e., exercise [EX], light [LPA] and moderate-to-vigorous intensity non-leisure time PA [MVPA], and sedentary behavior [SED]), and explore how individual factors modulate these associations. METHODS: Participants (≥18 years old) completed a computerized Single Category Implicit Association Test (SCIAT) measuring implicit attitudes towards PA and SED behaviors using images depicting the four different PA domains. Positive SCIAT scores indicated positive affective evaluation (AE) toward the target behavior. PA intention and PA self-efficacy (SES) were measured using questionnaires. Habitual PA was measured using an accelerometer. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine whether AE predicted unique variance in habitual PA levels after controlling for PA intentions and SES. RESULTS: Sixty-six participants (63% women; 92% students) were included in our final sample (M±SD: 23±8 y, 26.2±19.1 kg/m2, 53.4±13.0 min/d and 505.3±315.1 min/d of MVPA and SED, respectively; 80% met current PA recommendations). AE of the different PA domains did not differ: EX=0.00±0.67, LPA=0.00±0.89, MVPA=-0.08±0.46, SED=-0.08±0.72. AE of EX was strongly and positively correlated with LPA (r=0.53, p<0.001). AE of EX and SES interacted to predict min/d of MVPA (β=-0.21; p=0.04) and total activity counts per day (a measure of total PA) (β=-0.26; p=0.01). Simple slope analysis revealed that at high SES, AE of EX was negatively correlated with both MVPA (β=-0.29, p=0.05) and total PA (β=-0.31, p=0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Our results, although somewhat unexpected, support the role of AE in relation to PA behavior and suggest that its effect may depend on self-regulatory resources such as SES. Caution is warranted in generalizing our findings to other samples as ours was comprised of young, healthy, and active adults.

Comprehensive Sexuality Education Improves Primary Students’ Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is a curriculum-based process that is inclusive to gender and sexual orientation. We used the attitude toward homosexuality scale and the single category implicit association test (SC-IAT) to measure differences between explicit and implicit attitudes toward homosexuality between migrant children with 6 years CSE learning experience (experimental group, N = 70) and those without (control group, N = 80). We found that the experimental group had more positive explicit and implicit attitudes toward homosexuality than the control group. In conclusion, CSE is a useful process for improving the explicit and implicit attitudes of migrant children toward homosexuality.

Social Class Priming Effect on Prosociality: Evidence from Explicit and Implicit Measures

Although abundant research has explored the relationship between social class and prosociality, it remains controversial. This study aimed to investigate the effect of social class priming on prosociality among college students. Experiment 1 was an explicit experiment in which we employed the MacArthur scale to prime participants’ social class and then used a donation task. The results showed that students in a low social class priming group had more donation behaviors compared to ones in a high social class priming group. Experiment 2 was an implicit experiment in which we used a single category implicit association test (SC-IAT) to investigate the relationship between the self-concepts of different social classes and prosociality after priming participants’ social class. The results indicated that students in a low social class priming condition had a stronger connection between self-concepts and prosocial inclinations than ones in a high social class priming condition. Thus, our study demonstrated that students primed with low social class were more prosocial than those primed with high social class, and supported the empathy-altruism theory of prosocial behavior. These findings are of great practical significance to promote prosocial behavior of individuals of different social classes.

The role of right insula and its functional connectivity in the regulation of negative implicit stereotypes against rural migrant workers.

Previous studies have revealed that stereotyping processes involving negative affective content (e.g., antipathy) can lead to a significant increase in insula activity. However, whether the insula is sensitive to stereotype inconsistency or plays a crucial role in stereotype regulation remains unclear. To help fill this gap, 21 young adults were presented with a modified single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT) that assessed their stereotypes about rural migrant workers. In a within-subjects design, participants completed separate blocks of compatible and incompatible trials, each of which consisted of stereotype-consistent or stereotype-inconsistent trait labels that had a positive or a negative valence. Functional MRI was used to identify specific brain regions associated with negative and positive stereotyping. The behavioral results revealed a typical stereotype regulation effect in which participants responded slower to stereotype-inconsistent condition than stereotype-consistent condition, although such effect was significantly modulated by IAT compatibility, rather than by emotional valence. MRI results revealed that activity in the right insula was significantly sensitive to stereotype regulation processes in negative incompatible tasks, whereas such effect was marginally significant in positive incompatible tasks. Moreover, psychophysiological interaction analyses indicated complex functional connectivity among the right insula and cognitive control regions [e.g., ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)], social mentalizing regions [medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)], and motivation regions (putamen) in the condition where negative stereotypes were violated. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the right insula serves as a crucial node in regulating implicit stereotyping, particularly in negative stereotyping tasks.

COVID-19 emergency: the influence of implicit attitudes, information sources, and individual characteristics on psychological distress, intentions to get vaccinated, and compliance with restrictive rules.

To limit the spread of the COVID-19 emergency, a massive vaccination program was implemented and restrictive measures were imposed on the population. However, the propensity to adhere to the vaccination program has struggled to take off. Moreover, complying with the restrictive rules and maintaining social distancing have been highly distressing for many individuals. Italian participants (N = 140, females = 65%, mean age = 29.50, SD = 10.80) were presented with an online survey consisting of multiple-choice questions and two single-category implicit association tests (SC-IATs). One SC-IAT evaluated the tendency of participants to automatically associate personal protective equipment (PPE) and vaccines with safety or danger; the other evaluated their tendency to automatically associate social situations with good or bad. Multiple-choice questions explored individual, social, and environmental factors that were expected to contribute to vaccine propensity, compliance with restrictive rules, and feelings of distress. Using scientific information sources was related to implicitly associating PPE and vaccines with safety, which in turn was associated with the propensity to get the vaccine. Moreover, being female, young, unsatisfied with social relationships, having suffered health and economic consequences due to the pandemic, and having negative implicit attitudes toward social situations contributed to increasing feelings of distress. Communication may contribute to individuals' behavior and preferences and it can also be associated with implicit attitudes, becoming consequently one of the main leverages to reduce vaccine hesitancy. Recovery programs should prioritize the development of interventions aimed at fostering psychological well-being through the enhancement of social contacts.