Simulated Hail Damage Research Articles

Simulacija oštećenja od grada na regeneraciju i prinos soje (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)

The most common mechanical damage to soybean in the agroecological conditions of Serbia occurs after the appearance of hail, floods or due to damage from wild animals and insects. In recent years, extreme temperatures accompanied by drought have been increasingly recorded during the summer months, as well as the appearance of hail, which has become frequent during the growing season of spring crops. The aim of this work was to determine the consequences and the extent of yield reduction if hail occurs in the generative stages of soybean development. The occurrence of hail in the R1 (beginning bloom) and R3 (beginning pod) stages of development in the form of plant damage was simulated. This paper will present the results of how three soybean varieties reacted after simulated hail damage in two stages of generative development and what the effects were on yield, height, number of fertile nodes, as well as percentage of plant regeneration. The trial was set up in 2020 as a two-factorial experiment in three replications. Three soybean varieties were sown in late April. In order to simulate hail damage, the plants were cut to a height of 15 cm to ensure at least two nodes and enable the regeneration of the plants. The stage of development of soybean, i.e. the moment of hail damage, had a direct impact on the yield, the number of regenerated plants, as well as the number of fertile nodes.

LAI estimation through remotely sensed NDVI following hail defoliation in maize (Zea mays L.) using Sentinel-2 and UAV imagery

Extreme events such as hailstorms are a cause for concern in agriculture, leading to both economic and food supply losses. Traditional damage estimation techniques have recently been called into question since damages have rarely been quantified at the large-field scale. Damage-estimation methods used by field inspectors are complex and sometimes subjective and hardly account for damage spatial variability. In this work, a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)-based parametric method was applied using both unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and Sentinel-2 sensors to estimate the leaf area index (LAI) of maize (Zea mays L.) resulting from simulated hail damage. These methods were then compared to the LAI values generated from the Sentinel-2 Biophysical Processor. A two-year experiment (2020–2021) was conducted during the maize cropping season, with hail events simulated during a range of maize developmental stages (the 8th-leaf, flowering, milky and dough stages) using a 0–40% defoliation gradient of damage intensities performed with the aid of specifically designed prototype machines. The results showed that both sensors were able to accurately estimate LAI in a nonstandard damaged canopy while requiring only the calibration of the extinction coefficient k(vartheta ) in the case of parametric estimations. In this case, the calibration was performed using 2020 data, providing k(vartheta ) values of 0.59 for Sentinel-2 and 0.37 for the UAV sensor. The validation was performed on 2021 data, and showed that the UAV sensor had the best accuracy (R2 of 0.86, root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 0.71). The k(vartheta ) value proved to be sensor-specific, accounting for the NDVI retrieval differences likely caused by the different spatial operational scales of the two sensors. NDVI proved effective in parametrically estimating maize LAI under damaged canopy conditions at different defoliation degrees. The parametric method matched the Sentinel-2 biophysical process-generated LAI well, leading to less underestimations and more accurate LAI retrieval.

Impact of simulated hail damage at different growth stages and canopy positions on rainfed and irrigated winter wheat

AbstractProducers and crop insurance providers will benefit from an accurate assessment of yield reduction after hailstorms that considers crop management, weather, growth stage, and impacted part of crop (hail affected canopy position). But, limited information is available. The main objectives of this study were to quantify wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield losses associated with simulated hail damage timing and canopy position. The study was conducted in two locations (Garden City [irrigated], and Manhattan [rainfed]) in Kansas, from 2018 to 2020 and 2016 to 2018, respectively. Treatments were an incomplete factorial combination of stem bending at seven flowering stages, above or below the flag leaf and a nontreated control. Results of the study indicated 11%–22% wheat yield reduction due to simulated hail damage above the flag leaf and 32%–52% due to hail impact below the flag leaf under irrigated conditions. Within the high‐yielding rainfed environment, hail damage caused up to 20% yield reduction compared with the control. In rainfed and low‐yielding environments, the impact of hail damage was mainly dependent on the growth stage of wheat at hail occurrence. Hail damage at Feekes 11.2–11.4 stages decreased yield by 20%–50% from the rainfed control. Hail damage at Feekes 10.0–10.5.4 decreased yield by 50%–70% from the rainfed control. We provide empirical evidence that indicates hail damage on wheat is dependent on the interaction effect of in‐season crop water management, weather, canopy position and crop growth stage, and estimates of yield loss due to hail should consider these factors.

Spherical hydroxyapatite nanoparticle scaffolds for reduced lead release from damaged perovskite solar cells

Perovskite solar cells continue to attract interest due to their facile preparation and high power conversion efficiencies. However, the highest efficiency perovskite solar cells inevitably contain lead, which raises concerns over contamination of drinking water when a solar module is broken and then flooded. We previously showed that conventional synthetic hydroxyapatite (HAP) nanoparticles could capture some of the lead from broken solar cells, but the amount of lead released was well above the safe drinking water level. Here, we modify the HAP synthesis to prepare new spherical-HAP (s-HAP) nanoparticles with a 60% increase in the Pb absorption capacity. We blend s-HAPs with TiO2 nanoparticles to construct mixed scaffolds and investigate their effect on (FAPbI3)0.97(MAPbBr3)0.03 solar cell performance and lead capture. Replacement of 80% of the TiO2 nanoparticles with s-HAP causes the power conversion efficiency to increase from 18.61% to 20.32% as a result of decreased charge carrier recombination. Lead contamination of water from devices subjected to simulated hail damage followed by flooding is shown to decrease exponentially with increasing s-HAP content. The lead concentration in water after 24 h is below the US safe water drinking limit.

Growth and yield responses to simulated hail damage in drip-irrigated cotton

The frequent occurrence of hailstorm in Xinjiang affects cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production and causes enormous economic loss. The indeterminate growth habit of cotton allows for varying degrees of recovery and yield when different hail damage levels occur at different stages, which brings inconvenience to agricultural insurance claims and post-damage management. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate cotton recovery and yield responses to different levels of simulated hail damage at different growth stages. Four levels of hail damage (0, 30, 60, and 90%) were simulated every 15 d from the five-leaf stage to the boll opening stage in 2018 and 2019, for a total of six times (I, II, III, IV, V, and VI). The results showed that seed cotton yield decreased as the damage level increased and yield reduction increased when the damage was applied to older plants (for 30, 60 and 90% damage levels, yield reduction was 9–17%, 22–37% and 48–71%, respectively). One possible reason was that the leaf area index and leaf area duration of plant canopy decreased after hail damage, resulting in a reduction in the accumulation of above-ground biomass. However, when hail damage occurred before bloom, due to the indeterminate growth habit of cotton, the vegetative organs produced a strong compensation ability that promoted the bud development. The compensation ability of vegetative organs decreased when hail damage occurred after bloom and the recovery time was too short to promote new boll maturity. As the first study to understand the recovery of cotton after hail damage, it analyzed the leaf area index, leaf area duration, above-ground biomass accumulation and yield, rather than the yield alone. The findings are of great importance for cotton production as they inform decisions about post-damage management practices, yield forecasts and insurance compensation.

Effects of simulated hail damage and foliar-applied recovery treatments on growth and grain yield of wheat, field pea, and dry bean crops

Hailstorms can be responsible for significant economic loss to the agricultural sector in Alberta, Canada. Foliar applications of certain fungicides and nutrient blends have been advocated to promote recovery and yield of hail-damaged crops. Proper understanding of different crop and hail-related factors is required for an accurate assessment of hail damage to crops and for evaluations of hail-recovery product claims. This study was undertaken at three locations in Alberta during three growing seasons (2016–2018) to determine the effects of two levels of simulated hail severity at three different crop developmental stages, including the early growth (BBCH 30 for wheat; BBCH 14–16 for pulses), mid-growth (BBCH 39 for wheat; BBCH 60 for pulses), and late growth (BBCH 60 for wheat; BBCH 71 for pulses) stages. Plant growth and yield parameters of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), field pea (Pisum sativum L.), and dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) crops were measured. Simulated hail damage led to reductions in height, biomass, NDVI, grain yield, and kernel weight of all three crops. Average yield decreased by 24% and 35% for wheat, 17% and 35% for dry beans, and 37% and 45% for field peas for light and heavy hail severity, respectively. Hail timing was a critical factor influencing the extent of crop damage, with hail damage during the early growth stage leading to a lesser yield reduction compared with hail damage at the mid-growth and late growth stages. Fungicides and nutrient blends applications did not significantly improve crop recovery, grain yield, or kernel weight for any of the crops in this study.

Effects of simulated hail damage manifested by stem cutoff on seed yield and agronomic traits in Brassica napus L.

ABSTRACTA simulated hail-damage study was conducted in North Dakotaacross 2 years. The experiment was conducted in a randomizedcomplete block design with two factors, viz., five levels of stemcutoff and four growth stages; each combination was replicatedthree times. Data on seed yield plot-1 and other yield-contributingtraits were taken. A statistically significant seed yield reductioncompared with the control was observed at 75% and 90% levelof stem cutoff. Stem cutoff at 90% flowering stage caused higherseed yield reduction compared with 4th to 5th leaf rosette, bolting,and 50% flowering stages. A regression equation was developedto estimate the seed yield losses attributable to treatments at 90%flowering stage and different levels of stem cutoff. The estimatedeconomic losses were $52, $104, $156, and $188 hectare-1 for 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% stem cutoff, respectively. The 1,000-seed weight was significantly increased as level of stem cutoffincreased and growth stage advanced. Seed oil content wasalso increased as growth stage advanced. Primary branches,pods plant-1, seeds pod-1, and harvest index plant-1 weresignificantly reduced by both growth stage and level of stem cutoff.The secondary branches and biomass plant-1 were significantlyreduced by growth stage and level of stem cutoff, respectively.Our findings of differential yield losses by stem cutoff with differentgrowth stages should assist (1) growers in taking a critical decisionon whether they will keep or replant the crop, and (2) crop adjustersin deciding on compensation.

Cotton Response to Simulated Hail Damage and Stand Loss in Central Texas

Hail damage poses a significant threat to many cotton-producing regions in the U.S. Stand reductions, or loss of leaves, stem, and fruit can occur from these events, and growers must make critical management decisions on whether to keep or replant a damaged crop. To address these questions, field trials were conducted near College Station, TX in 2012 to 2014 to investigate the impact of stand loss and node removal on yield under both dryland and irrigated conditions. To simulate stand losses, stands of three different varieties seeded at 111,197 seed ha-1 were thinned by up to 84%. The critical plant population where yield reductions occurred was inconsistent under irrigated conditions, depending upon the year. Consistent yield losses were experienced only when 84% stand reduction occurred under dryland conditions. To investigate the impact of node removal, field trials were conducted where the upper portions of cotton plants were clipped at 2-, 4-, 8-, 12-, 16-, and 20-node growth stages. Significant yield losses were experienced only when clipping occurred early in the season, between the 2- and 8-node growth stages.

Maize grain soluble sugar and protein contents in response to simulated hail damage

Production of grain of high nutritional quality is essential in maize (Zea mays L.) as a food grain crop. Grain quality may be influenced by environmental and management factors, such as hail, plant density and grain selection. A study was conducted to determine the effect of hail damage on maize grain contents of soluble sugars and total proteins in relation to grain position on the cob and planting density. Maize was grown at three planting densities (65 000 plants ha−1 [high], 46 000 plants ha−1 [moderate] and 28 000 plants ha−1 [low]) at two sites (Baynesfield and Swayimane) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Approximately 80% hail damage was simulated on the leaves at the seventh leaf (V7) and tasseling (VT) stages of development of three maize cultivars (‘SC701’, ‘Mac Medium Pearl’ and ‘Zama Star’), whereas undamaged plants served as the control. After harvest at maturity, grains from the proximal and distal portions of the cob were divided and analysed for grain nutritional quality, i.e. soluble sugars and proteins. Soluble sugar analysis focused on the predominant sugars, namely glucose, fructose and sucrose. Although not significant, hail damage typically at VT reduced grain soluble sugar and protein contents by at least 3.2% and 3.8%, respectively, and grains produced at Baynesfield were more resilient to damage compared with those produced at Swayimane. Selection of seeds from the distal cob portion, especially for ‘SC701’, and low plant density reduced the detrimental effect of hail damage on grain sugar and protein content. The present results indicate that in areas prone to hail ‘SC701’ is a cultivar of choice, and a low plant density and selection of grains from the distal cob portion can mitigate the detrimental effects of hail on grain nutritional quality.

Timing and Positioning of Simulated Hail Damage Effects on Wheat Yield in Kansas: 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 Growing Seasons

Timing and Positioning of Simulated Hail Damage Effects on Wheat Yield in Kansas: 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 Growing Seasons

Interactive effects of simulated hail damage and plant density on maize seed quality

Interactive effects of simulated hail damage and plant density on maize seed quality

Timing and Positioning of Simulated Hail Damage Effects on Wheat Yield in Kansas

Timing and Positioning of Simulated Hail Damage Effects on Wheat Yield in Kansas

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) yield response to simulated hail damage

Yield loss in potato damaged by hail is mainly caused by reduced leaf area and plant stand. A 2-year field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of simulated hail damage on potato yield. The treatments were six levels of defoliation (control, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%) and five defoliation times (2, 5, 8, 11 and 14 weeks after emergence). The experiment was set up in a randomized block design with four replications, and the treatments were arranged as a factorial. From the perspective of yield loss, the most important time of defoliation, for mild and intense defoliation, respectively, were 8–11 and 5–11 weeks after emergence. The period between 5 and 8 weeks includes the stages of tuber initiation and tuber growth; the stages most sensitive to removal of aerial parts. Regardless of defoliation intensity, the production of small potatoes mostly occurred when defoliation occurred at 2 and 5 weeks. Plants were able to recover from any level of defoliation if it occurred at an early stage. In summary, yield reduction was little influenced by intensity of defoliation, but the timing of defoliation was evidently the most important factor.

Simulated hail damage and yield reduction in lentil

Bueckert, R. A. 2011. Simulated hail damage and yield reduction in lentil. Can. J. Plant Sci. 91: 117–124. The severity of crop damage by hail is frequently estimated using equations derived from controlled experiments, but this approach has not been extended to the indeterminate pulse crop lentil (Lens culinaris L.). The objective was to simulate hail damage on two lentil cultivars, and estimate yield reduction for use in the Crop Insurance Industry. Hail damage was simulated by controlled canopy crushing on two cultivars, CDC Blaze and CDC Sedley at 4 location-years in Saskatchewan in 2006 and 2007. Plots received simulated damage as the untreated control (0%), 30, 60 or 90% canopy height reduction by crushing at each of four growth stages: vegetative, early flowering, pod-filling, and physiological maturity. As damage intensity increased from 0 to 90%, yield decreased in both cultivars. Most yield reduction (>65%) was seen when damage occurred in reproductive growth. Yield reduction for lentil damaged in vegetative growth was described by linear models, and the reproductive stages by quadratic models. The equations will help improve hail damage assessment in lentil on the Northern Great Plains.

Effect of Defoliation by Simulated Hail Damage on Yield of Potato Cultivars with Different Maturity Performed in Spain

Worldwide, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) crops cover 18 × 106 ha, corresponding to a production of 314 × 106 t. The importance of this crop makes it crucial to control production losses and quality defects due to foliar injury, whether by natural or mechanical causes. The artificial defoliation of potatoes is a common technique used to investigate the correlation between damage caused by either hail or insects and yield. The aim of this study was to evaluate simulated hail damage on different cultivar potatoes of varying maturity to quantify the commercial yield reduction attributable to different defoliation levels through the potato crop cycle. Eight trials were carried out in the Central Ebro Valley (northern Spain) over a period of 4 years with three potato cultivars: Jaerla, Red-Pontiac, and Baraka. Four levels of defoliation (no defoliation, slight defoliation, medium defoliation, and high defoliation) were carried out in several phenological stages. The crop yield losses for each level of defoliation were calculated by correlating the percentage of defoliation applied and the resulting percentage of yield loss. Yield reduction equations were calculated for each trial and phenological stage. Damaged produced during tuber formation or flowering considerably reduced yield. In contrast, defoliations after tubers had completed growth barely affected yields. Differences among cultivars with respect to yield losses were noted regardless of location and year. The early cultivar (Jaerla) recovered worse than the longer-cycle varieties (Red Pontiac and Baraka) as concerns defoliation effects. Effects on yield were similar at the different locations. The regression equations presented may be used for modeling the yield reduction due to defoliation treatments caused by different biotic and abiotic agents.

Effect of Foliar Fungicides on Corn with Simulated Hail Damage.

Quinone outside inhibitor (QoI) foliar fungicides can be effective at reducing foliar diseases in corn (Zea mays), and they have been shown to provide physiological benefits experimentally in other crops in the absence of disease. A new supplemental label for pyraclostrobin that was approved in January 2009 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that corn plants applied with pyraclostrobin may have better tolerance to damage caused by hail. To determine the effects of QoI foliar fungicides on hail-damaged corn, field research trials were conducted near Champaign, IL in 2007 and 2008. Hail damage was simulated with a gasoline-powered string-mower at the V12 growth stage, which caused injury to leaves and defoliation. At VT, the foliar fungicides azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin were applied to corn. Control treatments included a nontreated control and a nondamaged control. The simulated hail damage significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased gray leaf spot severity (caused by Cercospora zeae-maydis) in 2007 but not in 2008. Simulated hail damage also significantly reduced yield compared with the nondamaged control in both 2007 and 2008. Foliar fungicides significantly reduced disease severity compared with the nontreated control in 2007 but not in 2008; however, foliar fungicides did not significantly improve yield in either the damaged or nondamaged plots compared with the nontreated controls. Results from our research trials indicated that foliar fungicides provided very little benefit to corn injured by simulated hail; thus, growers should consider factors other than hail damage when making fungicide application decisions for corn.

Growth and Yield Response to Simulated Hail Damage in Guar

Hail damage can result in substantial economic loss to annual spring and summer crops. Crop insurance guidelines to assess hail damage on major crops are readily available to adjusters. However, research and guidelines to assess hail damage on minor crops is lacking and may limit their expansion. A dryland field study with guar [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub.] was designed to determine the effect of simulated hail damage at two growth stages and three levels of defoliation on plant regrowth and bean yield. Experiments were conducted on a Miles fine sandy loam (fine‐loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic Typic Paleustalfs) near Vernon, TX, from 2001 through 2003. A commercial grass trimmer was used to simulate hail damage by flailing plants to targeted defoliations levels of 33, 66, and 90% at 6 and 12 wk after emergence (WAE). Both final plant height and yield were reduced to a greater extent when plants were damaged at 12 WAE (grain‐fill period) than at 6 WAE (early flowering). Regression analysis from data combined over years showed that guar yields were reduced 50% with a 66% defoliation level at 6 WAE, but required only 42% defoliation to reduce yield levels 50% with late‐season defoliation. This is the first report of using a grass trimmer to simulate hail damage by shredding plant material rather than manually removing plants and plant parts. Results from this study also provide a basis for producers and insurance adjusters to quantify and estimate economic losses in guar due to hail damage at two growth stages.

Impact of Defoliation on Corn Forage Yield

Farmers, agronomists, and crop insurance adjusters question whether leaf defoliation damage caused by hail or other factors affects corn (Zea mays L.) forage yield the same as grain yield. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of defoliation on corn grown for forage production. In studies conducted during 3 yr at two sites in Wisconsin and one site in Pennsylvania, forage yield decreased as leaf removal increased in severity, and as time of defoliation neared silking. Forage yield response to increasing levels of defoliation was quadratic. Averaged across all environments, forage yield decreased 16% when 100% defoliation occurred at V7. Likewise 100% defoliation decreased forage yield 43, 70, and 40% at V10, R1, and R4 growth stages, respectively. Greater forage yield decreases are measured with early defoliation (V7–V10) than predicted grain yield decreases currently used by hail adjusters. This likely occurred because both increased leaf removal and decreased grain yield combine to reduce forage yield. The response to defoliation from simulated hail damage is different between corn forage and corn grain. Alternative predictive models for estimating forage yield losses should be used by insurance adjusters.

Effect of mechanically-simulated hail on photosynthesis, dark respiration and transpiration of apple leaves

Mechanical hail injury, as a source of abiotic stress, was examined using non-destructive in-situ gas exchange measurements and stomatal imprints of affected apple leaves. Apple leaves closed their stomata, as shown by stomatal imprints, within 3 min after induced damage. Water vapour efflux (evaporation) increased in the light, in spite of stomatal closure, by 16% from 3.9 to 4.5 mmol H 2O m −2 s −1 for approximately 10 min after injury due to evaporation from ruptured tissue, with a subsequent decrease to 2.3 mmol H 2O m −2 s −1 after 2.5 h. After 3 h, hail-damaged leaves re-opened their stomata to a certain extent and recovered in terms of transpiration. Photosynthesis decreased from 13.5 μmol CO 2 m −2 s −1 to 9.1 μmol CO 2 m −2 s −1 15 min after hail damage with a concomitant increase in intercellular CO 2 from approximately 250 to 340 ppm CO 2 and recovered to 73% of its control within 5 h. No difference in dark respiration was observed between control and hail-damaged leaves. Water loss, measured in the dark to separate stomatal transpiration from hail-induced (non-stomatal) evaporation, of apple leaves also increased in the dark after simulated hail damage within 10 min from 1 to 1.3 mmol H 2O m −2 s −1 and then declined slowly from 1.3 to 0.9 mmol H 2O m −2 s −1 within 1 h. It is concluded that approximately 0.27 mmol H 2O m −2 s −1 or 20–27% of the recorded water loss after the hail damage was evaporation from ruptured tissue.

Response of BT Corn to Simulated Hail Damage (2000)

Response of BT Corn to Simulated Hail Damage (2000)