Simulations Of Galaxy Clusters Research Articles

Observational Predictions for the Survival of Atomic Hydrogen in Simulated Fornax-like Galaxy Clusters

The presence of dense, neutral hydrogen clouds in the hot, diffuse intragroup and intracluster (IC) medium is an important clue to the physical processes controlling the survival of cold gas and sheds light on cosmological baryon flows in massive halos. Advances in numerical modeling and observational surveys mean that theory and observational comparisons are now possible. In this paper, we use the high-resolution TNG50 cosmological simulation to study the H i distribution in seven halos with masses similar to the Fornax galaxy cluster. Adopting observational sensitivities similar to the MeerKAT Fornax Survey (MFS), an ongoing H i survey that will probe to column densities of 1018 cm−2, we find that Fornax-like TNG50 halos have an extended distribution of neutral hydrogen clouds. Within 1 R vir, we predict the MFS will observe a total H i covering fraction of ∼12% (mean value) for 10 kpc pixels and 6% for 2 kpc pixels. If we restrict this to gas more than 10 half-mass radii from galaxies, the mean values only decrease mildly, to 10% (4%) for 10 (2) kpc pixels (albeit with significant halo-to-halo spread). Although there are large amounts of H i outside of galaxies, the gas seems to be associated with satellites, judging both by the visual inspection of projections and by comparison of the line of sight velocities of galaxies and IC H i.

Imprints of the internal dynamics of galaxy clusters on the Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect

Context. Forthcoming measurements of the Sunyaev–Zeldovich (SZ) effect in galaxy clusters will dramatically improve our understanding of the main intra-cluster medium (ICM) properties and how they depend on the particular thermal and dynamical state of the associated clusters. Aims. Using a sample of simulated galaxy clusters, whose dynamical history can be well known and described, we assess the impact of the ICM internal dynamics on both the thermal and kinetic SZ effects (tSZ and kSZ, respectively). Methods. We produced synthetic maps of the SZ effect, both thermal and kinetic, for the simulated clusters obtained in a cosmological simulation produced by a cosmological adaptive mesh refinement code. For each galaxy cluster in the sample, its dynamical state is estimated by using a combination of well-established indicators. We used the correlations between SZ maps and cluster dynamical state to look for the imprints of the evolutionary events, mainly mergers, on the SZ signals. Results. While the tSZ effect only shows dependency on dynamical state in its radial distribution, the kinetic effect shows a remarkable correlation with this property: unrelaxed clusters present a higher radial profile and an overall stronger signal at all masses and radii. The reason for this correlation is the fuzziness of the ICM produced by recent merging episodes. Furthermore, the kSZ signal is correlated with rotation for relaxed clusters, while for the disturbed systems, the effect is dominated by other motions such as bulk flows, turbulence, and so on. The kSZ effect shows a dipolar pattern when averaging over cluster dynamical classes, especially for the relaxed population. This feature can be exploited to stack multiple kSZ maps in order to recover a stronger dipole signal that would be correlated with the global rotation properties of the sample. Conclusions. The SZ effect can be used as a tool to estimate the dynamical state of galaxy clusters, especially to segregate those clusters with a quiescent evolution from those with a rich record of recent merger events. Our results suggest that the forthcoming observational data measuring the SZ signal in clusters could be used as a complementary strategy for classifying the evolutionary history of galaxy clusters.

The hot circumgalactic media of massive cluster satellites in the TNG-Cluster simulation: Existence and detectability

The most massive galaxy clusters in the Universe host tens to hundreds of massive satellite galaxies M⋆ ∼ 1010 − 12.5 M⊙, but it is unclear if these satellites are able to retain their own gaseous atmospheres. We analyze the evolution of ≈90 000 satellites of stellar mass ∼109 − 12.5 M⊙ around 352 galaxy clusters of mass M200c ∼ 1014.3 − 15.4 M⊙ at z = 0 from the new TNG-Cluster suite of cosmological magneto-hydrodynamical galaxy cluster simulations. The number of massive satellites per host increases with host mass, and the mass–richness relation broadly agrees with observations. A halo of mass M200chost ∼ 1014.5(1015) M⊙ hosts ∼100 (300) satellites today. Only a minority of satellites retain some gas, hot or cold, and this fraction increases with stellar mass. lower-mass satellites ∼109 − 10 M⊙ are more likely to retain part of their cold interstellar medium, consistent with ram pressure preferentially removing hot extended gas first. At higher stellar masses ∼1010.5 − 12.5 M⊙, the fraction of gas-rich satellites increases to unity, and nearly all satellites retain a sizeable portion of their hot, spatially extended circumgalactic medium (CGM), despite the ejective activity of their supermassive black holes. According to TNG-Cluster, the CGM of these gaseous satellites can be seen in soft X-ray emission (0.5−2.0 keV) that is, ≳10 times brighter than the local background. This X-ray surface brightness excess around satellites extends to ≈30 − 100 kpc, and is strongest for galaxies with higher stellar masses and larger host-centric distances. Approximately 10% of the soft X-ray emission in cluster outskirts ≈0.75 − 1.5 R200c originates from satellites. The CGM of member galaxies reflects the dynamics of cluster-satellite interactions and contributes to the observationally inferred properties of the intracluster medium.

Hydrodynamical simulations of merging galaxy clusters: Giant dark matter particle colliders, powered by gravity

Hydrodynamical simulations of merging galaxy clusters: Giant dark matter particle colliders, powered by gravity

Quasi-perpendicular shocks of galaxy clusters in hybrid kinetic simulations

Context. Cosmic ray acceleration in galaxy clusters is still an ongoing puzzle, with relativistic electrons forming radio relics at merger shocks and emitting synchrotron radiation. These shocks are also potential sources of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays, gamma rays, and neutrinos. Our recent work focuses on electron acceleration at low Mach number merger shocks in the hot intracluster medium which is characterized by high plasma beta. Using particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations, we previously showed that electrons are energized through the stochastic shock-drift acceleration process, which is facilitated by multi-scale turbulence, including ion-scale shock surface rippling. For the present work, we performed hybrid-kinetic simulations in a range of various quasi-perpendicular foreshock conditions, including plasma beta, magnetic obliquity, and the shock Mach number. Aims. We study the ion kinetic physics, which is responsible for the shock structure and wave turbulence, that in turn affects the particle acceleration processes. We cover the spatial and temporal scales, which allow the development of large-scale ion turbulence modes in the system. Methods. We applied a recently developed generalized fluid-particle hybrid numerical code that can combine fluid modeling for both electrons and ions with an arbitrary number of kinetic species. We limited this model to a standard hybrid simulation configuration with kinetic ions and fluid electrons. The model utilizes the exact form of the generalized Ohm’s law, allowing for an arbitrary choice of mass and energy densities, as well as the charge-to-mass ratio of the kinetic species. Results. We show that the properties of ion-driven multi-scale magnetic turbulence in merger shocks are in agreement with the ion structures observed in PIC simulations. In typical shocks with the sonic Mach number Ms = 3, the magnetic structures and shock front density ripples grow and saturate at wavelengths reaching approximately four ion Larmor radii. Only shocks with Ms ≳ 2.3 develop ripples. At very weak shocks with Ms ≲ 2.3, weak turbulence is formed downstream of the shock. We observed a moderate dependence of the strength of magnetic field fluctuations on the quasi-perpendicular magnetic field obliquity. However, as the field obliquity decreases, the shock front ripples exhibit longer wavelengths. Finally, we note that the steady-state structure of Ms = 3 shocks in high-beta plasmas shows evidence that there is little difference between 2D and 3D simulations. The turbulence near the shock front seems to be a 2D-like structure in 3D simulations.

The three hundred project: mapping the matter distribution in galaxy clusters via deep learning from multiview simulated observations

ABSTRACT A galaxy cluster as the most massive gravitationally bound object in the Universe, is dominated by dark matter, which unfortunately can only be investigated through its interaction with the luminous baryons with some simplified assumptions that introduce an un-preferred bias. In this work, we, for the first time, propose a deep learning method based on the U-Net architecture, to directly infer the projected total mass density map from idealized observations of simulated galaxy clusters at multiwavelengths. The model is trained with a large data set of simulated images from clusters of the three hundred project. Although machine learning (ML) models do not depend on the assumptions of the dynamics of the intracluster medium, our whole method relies on the choice of the physics implemented in the hydrodynamic simulations, which is a limitation of the method. Through different metrics to assess the fidelity of the inferred density map, we show that the predicted total mass distribution is in very good agreement with the true simulated cluster. Therefore, it is not surprising to see the integrated halo mass is almost unbiased, around 1 per cent for the best result from multiview, and the scatter is also very small, basically within 3 per cent. This result suggests that this ML method provides an alternative and more accessible approach to reconstructing the overall matter distribution in galaxy clusters, which can complement the lensing method.

Efficiency of Turbulent Reacceleration by Solenoidal Turbulence and Its Application to the Origin of Radio Megahalos in Cluster Outskirts

Recent radio observations with the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) discovered diffuse emission extending beyond the scale of classical radio halos. The presence of such megahalos indicates that the amplification of the magnetic field and acceleration of relativistic particles are working in the cluster outskirts, presumably due to the combination of shocks and turbulence that dissipate energy in these regions. Cosmological magnetohydrodynamical (MHD) simulations of galaxy clusters suggest that solenoidal turbulence has a significant energy budget in the outskirts of galaxy clusters. In this paper, we explore the possibility that this turbulence contributes to the emission observed in megahalos through second-order Fermi acceleration of relativistic particles and magnetic field amplification by the dynamo. We focus on the case of A2255 and find that this scenario can explain the basic properties of the diffuse emission component that is observed under assumptions that are used in previous literature. More specifically, we conduct a numerical follow-up, solving the Fokker–Planck equation by using a snapshot of an MHD simulation and deducing the synchrotron brightness integrated along the lines of sight. We find that a volume-filling emission, ranging between 30% and almost 100% of the projected area, depending on our assumptions on the particle diffusion and transport, can be detected at LOFAR sensitivities. Assuming a magnetic field B ∼ 0.2 μG, as derived from a dynamo model applied to the emitting region, we find that the observed brightness can be matched when ∼1% of the solenoidal turbulent energy flux is channeled into particle acceleration.

Galaxy catalogs from the Sage Semi-Analytic Model calibrated on The Three Hundred hydrodynamical simulations: A method to push the limits toward lower mass galaxies in dark matter only clusters simulations

The new generation of upcoming deep photometric and spectroscopic surveys will allow us to measure the astrophysical properties of faint galaxies in massive clusters. This would demand to produce simulations of galaxy clusters with better mass resolution than the ones available today if we want to make comparisons between the upcoming observations and predictions of cosmological models. But producing full-physics hydrodynamical simulations of the most massive clusters is not an easy task. This would involve billions of computational elements to reliably resolve low mass galaxies similar to those measured in observations. On the other hand, dark matter only simulations of cluster size halos can be done with much larger mass resolution but at the cost of having to apply a model that populate galaxies within each of the subhalos in these simulations. In this paper we present the results of a new set of dark matter only simulations with different mass resolutions within the The Three Hundred project. We have generated catalogs of galaxies with stellar and luminosity properties by applying the Sage Semi-Analytical Model of galaxy formation. To obtain the catalogs consistent with the results from hydrodynamical simulations, the internal physical parameters of Sage were calibrated with the Particle Swarm Optimization method using a subset of full-physics runs with the same mass resolution than the dark matter only ones.

Galaxy clusters morphology with Zernike polynomials: The first application on Planck Compton parameter maps

The study of the morphology of 2D projected maps of galaxy clusters is a suitable approach to infer, from real data, the dynamical state of those systems. We recently developed a new method to recover the morphological features in galaxy cluster maps which consists of an analytical modelling through the Zernike polynomials. The validation of this approach was done on a set of high-resolution mock maps of the Compton parameter y. These maps are from hydrodynamically simulated galaxy clusters in The Three Hundred project. After this step, we apply the Zernike modelling on y-maps of local (z < 0.1) galaxy clusters observed by the Planck satellite. With a single parameter collecting the main information of the Zernike modelling, we classify their morphology. A set of mock Planck-like y-maps, generated from The Three Hundred clusters, is also used to validate our indicator with a proper dynamical state classification. This approach allows us to test the efficiency of the Zernike morphological modelling in evaluating the dynamical population in the real Planck sample.

The correlation function and detection of baryon acoustic oscillation peak from the spectroscopic SDSS-GalWCat galaxy cluster catalogue

ABSTRACT We measure the two-point correlation function (CF) of 1357 galaxy clusters with a mass of log10M200 ≥ 13.6 h−1 M⊙ and at a redshift of z ≤ 0.125. This work differs from previous analyses in that it utilizes a spectroscopic cluster catalogue, $\tt {SDSS-GalWCat}$, to measure the CF and detect the baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) signal. Unlike previous studies which use statistical techniques, we compute covariance errors directly by generating a set of 1086 galaxy cluster light-cones from the GLAM N-body simulation. Fitting the CF with a power-law model of the form ξ(s) = (s/s0)−γ, we determine the best-fitting correlation length and power-law index at three mass thresholds. We find that the correlation length increases with increasing the mass threshold while the power-law index is almost constant. For log10M200 ≥ 13.6 h−1 M⊙, we find s0 = 14.54 ± 0.87 h−1 Mpc and γ = 1.97 ± 0.11. We detect the BAO signal at s = 100 h−1 Mpc with a significance of 1.60σ. Fitting the CF with a Lambda cold dark matter model, we find $D_\mathrm{V}(z = 0.089)\mathit{r}^{\mathrm{ fid}}_\mathrm{ d}/\mathit{r}_\mathrm{ d} = 267.62 \pm 26$ h−1 Mpc, consistent with Planck 2015 cosmology. We present a set of 108 high-fidelity simulated galaxy cluster light-cones from the high-resolution Uchuu N-body simulation, employed for methodological validation. We find DV(z = 0.089)/rd = 2.666 ± 0.129, indicating that our method does not introduce any bias in the parameter estimation for this small sample of galaxy clusters.

GALAXY CLUSTER MERGERS: THE USE OF THE COMPUTER MODELING

We show the possibilities of the methods of computer modeling of the galaxy cluster merger process with different initial parameters for the investigation of the features of the clusters after colliding. We considered the galaxy clusters as evolving objects including through collisions. Computer modeling of galaxy cluster mergers and comparing its results with observational data makes it possible to determine the evolutionary status of real clusters with complex internal structures. Within the study, we analyzed in detail a series of models of the galaxy clusters’ merger consequences by ZuHone under different initial conditions like mass ratio, initial collision parameter, or plasma coefficient β. The considered time intervals were from 0 to 4.8 billion years, from 0 to 6 billion years, and from 0 to 10 billion years, depending on the initial conditions. Based on the images of the simulated galaxy clusters, maps of the distribution of the total mass density and X-ray radiation were created and compared with observations. We showed a good perspective to use this catalog for studying galaxy clusters having compound inner structure.

Mock Observations: Formation and Evolution of Diffuse Light in Galaxy Groups and Clusters in the IllustrisTNG Simulations

In this paper, by analyzing mock images from the IllustrisTNG100-1 simulation, we examine the properties of diffuse light and compare them to those of central and satellite galaxies. Our findings suggest that the majority of the diffuse light originates from satellites. This claim is supported by the similarity between the age and metallicity distributions of the diffuse light and those of the satellites. Notably, the color distribution of the diffuse light gradually evolves to resemble that of the centrals at lower redshifts, suggesting a coevolution or passive process. The radial profiles of the diffuse light reveal distinct trends, with the inner regions displaying a relatively flat distribution and the outer regions showing a descending pattern. This finding suggests that the formation of the diffuse light is influenced by both major mergers and stellar tidal stripping. Moreover, strong correlations are found between the stellar mass of the diffuse light and the overall stellar mass of the satellites, as well as between the stellar mass of the diffuse light and the number of satellites within groups or clusters. These relationships can be described by power-law and logarithmic functions. Overall, the diffuse light components predominantly originate from satellites with intermediate ages and metallicities. These satellites typically fall within the stellar mass range and the color range −1 < [g − r]0.1 < 0. As the redshift decreases, the growth of the diffuse light is primarily influenced by the redder satellites, while the most massive and reddest satellites have minimal roles in its growth.

The three hundred project: thermodynamical properties, shocks, and gas dynamics in simulated galaxy cluster filaments and their surroundings

ABSTRACT Using cosmological simulations of galaxy cluster regions from The Three Hundred project, we study the nature of gas in filaments feeding massive clusters. By stacking the diffuse material of filaments throughout the cluster sample, we measure average gas properties such as density, temperature, pressure, entropy and Mach number and construct one-dimensional profiles for a sample of larger, radially oriented filaments to determine their characteristic features as cosmological objects. Despite the similarity in velocity space between the gas and dark matter accretion patterns on to filaments and their central clusters, we confirm some differences, especially concerning the more ordered radial velocity dispersion of dark matter around the cluster and the larger accretion velocity of gas relative to dark matter in filaments. We also study the distribution of shocked gas around filaments and galaxy clusters, showing that the surrounding shocks allow an efficient internal transport of material, suggesting a laminar infall. The stacked temperature profile of filaments is typically colder towards the spine, in line with the cosmological rarefaction of matter. Therefore, filaments are able to isolate their inner regions, maintaining lower gas temperatures and entropy. Finally, we study the evolution of the gas density–temperature phase diagram of our stacked filament, showing that filamentary gas does not behave fully adiabatically through time but it is subject to shocks during its evolution, establishing a characteristic z = 0, entropy-enhanced distribution at intermediate distances from the spine of about $1{-}2\, h^{-1}\,$ Mpc for a typical galaxy cluster in our sample.

Exploring the origins of mega radio halos

We present a first attempt to investigate the origin of radio-emitting electrons in the newly discovered class of mega radio halos in clusters of galaxies. We study the evolution of relativistic electrons accreted by the external regions of a simulated cluster of galaxies at high resolution, including the effect of radiative losses and turbulent reacceleration acting on relativistic electrons. We conclude that turbulent reacceleration induced by structure formation, if sufficiently prolonged, has the potential to produce a large reservoir of radio-emitting electrons in the large regions illuminated by mega radio halos observed by LOFAR.

A persistent excess of galaxy-galaxy strong lensing observed in galaxy clusters

Context. Previous studies have revealed that the estimated probability of galaxy-galaxy strong lensing in observed galaxy clusters exceeds the expectations from the Λ cold dark matter cosmological model by one order of magnitude. Aims. We aim to understand the origin of this excess by analyzing a larger set of simulated galaxy clusters, and investigating how the theoretical expectations vary under different adopted prescriptions and numerical implementations of star formation and feedback in simulations. Methods. We performed a ray-tracing analysis of 324 galaxy clusters from the THREE HUNDRED project, comparing the GADGET-X and GIZMO-SIMBA runs. These simulations, which start from the same initial conditions, were performed with different implementations of hydrodynamics and galaxy formation models tailored to match different observational properties of the intracluster medium and cluster galaxies. Results. We find that galaxies in the GIZMO-SIMBA simulations develop denser stellar cores than their GADGET-X counterparts. Consequently, their probability for galaxy-galaxy strong lensing is higher by a factor of ∼3. This increment is still insufficient to fill the gap with observations as a discrepancy by a factor ∼4 still persists. In addition, we find that several simulated galaxies have Einstein radii that are too large compared to observations. Conclusions. We conclude that a persistent excess of galaxy-galaxy strong lensing exists in observed galaxy clusters. The origin of this discrepancy with theoretical predictions is still unexplained in the framework of the cosmological hydrodynamical simulations. This might signal a hitherto unknown issue with either the simulation methods or our assumptions regarding the standard cosmological model.

Painting baryons on to N-body simulations of galaxy clusters with image-to-image deep learning

ABSTRACT Galaxy cluster mass functions are a function of cosmology, but mass is not a direct observable, and systematic errors abound in all its observable proxies. Mass-free inference can bypass this challenge, but it requires large suites of simulations spanning a range of cosmologies and models for directly observable quantities. In this work, we devise a U-net – an image-to-image machine learning algorithm – to ‘paint’ the illustristng model of baryons on to dark matter-only (DMO) simulations of galaxy clusters. Using 761 galaxy clusters with M200c ≳ 1014 M⊙ from the TNG300 simulation at z &amp;lt; 1, we train the algorithm to read in maps of projected dark matter mass and output maps of projected gas density, temperature, and X-ray flux. Despite being trained on individual images, the model reproduces the true scaling relation and scatter for the MDM–LX, as well as the distribution functions of the cluster X-ray luminosity and gas mass. For just one decade in cluster mass, the model reproduces three orders of magnitude in LX. The model is biased slightly high when using dark matter maps from the DMO simulation. The model performs well on inputs from TNG300-2, whose mass resolution is eight times coarser; further degrading the resolution biases the predicted luminosity function high. We conclude that U-net-based baryon painting is a promising technique to build large simulated cluster catalogues, which can be used to improve cluster cosmology by combining existing full-physics and large N-body simulations.

Putting plasma in the cosmological picture

Dr Klaus Dolag and his colleagues in the COMPLEX group aim to include plasma-physical effects in hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy clusters, which could lead to new insights into how they form and evolve.

Lensing in the Blue. II. Estimating the Sensitivity of Stratospheric Balloons to Weak Gravitational Lensing

The Superpressure Balloon-borne Imaging Telescope (SuperBIT) is a diffraction-limited, wide-field, 0.5 m, near-infrared to near-ultraviolet observatory designed to exploit the stratosphere’s space-like conditions. SuperBIT’s 2023 science flight will deliver deep, blue imaging of galaxy clusters for gravitational lensing analysis. In preparation, we have developed a weak-lensing measurement pipeline with modern algorithms for PSF characterization, shape measurement, and shear calibration. We validate our pipeline and forecast SuperBIT survey properties with simulated galaxy cluster observations in SuperBIT’s near-UV and blue bandpasses. We predict imaging depth, galaxy number (source) density, and redshift distribution for observations in SuperBIT’s three bluest filters; the effect of lensing sample selections is also considered. We find that, in three hours of on-sky integration, SuperBIT can attain a depth of b = 26 mag and a total source density exceeding 40 galaxies per square arcminute. Even with the application of lensing-analysis catalog selections, we find b-band source densities between 25 and 30 galaxies per square arcminute with a median redshift of z = 1.1. Our analysis confirms SuperBIT’s capability for weak gravitational lensing measurements in the blue.

Effects of multiphase gas and projection on X-ray observables in simulated galaxy clusters as seen by eROSITA

Context. Galaxy clusters are the most massive bound objects in the recent history of the universe; the number density of galaxy clusters as a function of mass and redshift is a sensitive function of the cosmological parameters. To use clusters for cosmological parameter studies, it is necessary to determine their masses as accurately as possible, which is typically done via scaling relations between mass and observables. Aims. X-ray observables can be biased by a number of effects, including multiphase gas and projection effects, especially in the case where cluster temperatures and luminosities are estimated from single-model fits to all of the emission with an overdensity radius such as r500c. Using simulated galaxy clusters from a realistic cosmological simulation, our aim is to determine the importance of these biases in the context of Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma/eROSITA observations of clusters. Methods. We extracted clusters from the Box2_hr simulation from the Magneticum suite, and simulated synthetic eROSITA observations of these clusters using PHOX to generate the photons and the end-to-end simulator SIXTE to trace them through the optics and simulate the detection process. We fitted the spectra from these observations and compared the fitted temperatures and luminosities to the quantities derived from the simulations. We fitted an intrinsically scattered LX − T scaling relation to these measurements following a Bayesian approach with which we fully took into account the selection effects and the mass function. Results. The largest biases on the estimated temperature and luminosities of the clusters come from the inadequacy of single-temperature model fits to represent emission from multiphase gas, and from a bias arising from cluster emission within the projected r500c along the line of sight but outside of the spherical r500c. We find that the biases on temperature and luminosity due to the projection of emission from other clusters within r500c is comparatively small. We find eROSITA-like measurements of Magneticum clusters following a LX − T scaling relation that has a broadly consistent but slightly shallower slope compared to the literature values. We also find that the intrinsic scatter of LX at given T is lower compared to the recent observational results where the selection effects are fully considered.

Redshift evolution of the baryon and gas fraction in simulated groups and clusters of galaxies

We study the redshift evolution of the baryon budget in a large set of galaxy clusters from the Magneticum suite of smoothed particle hydrodynamical cosmological simulations. At high redshifts (z ≳ 1), we obtain ‘closed-box’ (i.e. baryon mass fraction fbar = Ωbar/Ωtot) systems independently of the mass of the systems on radii greater than 3R500, c, whereas at lower redshifts, only the most massive halos can be considered closed box. Furthermore, in the innermost regions (r &lt; R500, c), the baryon fraction shows a general decrease with redshift, and for less massive objects we observe a much more prominent decrease than for massive halos (fbar × Ωtot/Ωbar = Ybar decreases by ∼4% from z ∼ 2.8 to z ∼ 0.2 for massive systems and by ∼15% for less massive objects in the same redshift range). The gas depletion parameter Ygas = fgas/(Ωbar/Ωtot) shows a steeper and highly scattered radial distribution in the central regions (0.5R500, c ≤ r ≤ 2R500, c) of less massive halos with respect to massive objects at all redshifts, while on larger radii (r ≥ 2R500, c) the gas fraction distributions are independent of the masses or the redshifts. We divide the gas content of halos into the hot and cold phases. The hot, X-ray-observable component of the gas accurately traces the total amount of gas at low redshifts (e.g., for z ∼ 0.2 at R500, c, in the most massive subsample, that is, 4.6 × 1014 ≤ M500, c/M⊙ ≤ 7.5 × 1014 and least massive subsample, that is, 6.0 × 1013 ≤ M500, c/M⊙ ≤ 1.9 × 1014, we obtain Ygas ∼ 0.75 and 0.67, Yhot ∼ 0.73 and 0.64, and Ycold ∼ 0.02 and 0.02, respectively). On the other hand, at higher redshifts, the cold component provides a non-negligible contribution to the total amount of baryons in our simulated systems, especially in less massive objects (e.g., for z ∼ 2.8 at R500, c, in the most massive subsample, that is, 2.5 × 1013 ≤ M500, c/M⊙ ≤ 5.0 × 1013 and least massive subsample, that is, 5.8 × 1012 ≤ M500, c/M⊙ ≤ 9.7 × 1012, we obtain Ygas ∼ 0.63 and 0.64, Yhot ∼ 0.50 and 0.45, and Ycold ∼ 0.13 and 0.18, respectively). Moreover, the behaviour of the baryonic, entire-gas, and hot-gas-phase depletion parameters as functions of radius, mass, and redshift are described by some functional forms for which we provide the best-fit parametrization. The evolution of metallicity and stellar mass in halos suggests that the early (z &gt; 2) enrichment process is dominant, while more recent star-formation processes make negligible contributions to the enrichment of the gas metallicity. In addition, active galactic nuclei (AGN) play an important role in the evolution of the baryon content of galaxy clusters. Therefore, we investigate possible correlations between the time evolution of AGN feedback and the depletion parameters in our numerical simulations. Interestingly, we demonstrate that the energy injected by the AGN activity shows a particularly strong positive correlation with Ybar, Ycold, and Ystar and a negative correlation with Yhot and ZTot. On the other hand, Ygas shows a less prominent level of negative correlation, a result which is highly dependent on the mass of the halos. These trends are consistent with previous theoretical and numerical works, meaning that our results, combined with findings derived from current and future X-ray observations, represent possible proxies with which to test the AGN feedback models used in different suites of numerical simulations.