Simulated Flight Performance Research Articles

Using Light to Facilitate Circadian Entrainment from Day to Night Flights.

BACKGROUND: As part of a larger project to provide recommendations regarding limitations and best practices for shifting aviators from day to night operations, a study was conducted to assess the efficacy of high energy visible (HEV) light to shift the circadian rhythm in humans. The study attempted to replicate the patterns of military aviators who could be required to shift abruptly from day to night flight operations.METHODS: Simulated flight performance and salivary melatonin levels of 10 U.S. military aviators were collected over a 3-night period using a within-subject dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) study design. Data were collected in a laboratory with participants returning home to sleep following each of the three evenings/nights of data collection. Light treatment included a single 4-h exposure of blue-enriched white light (∼1000 lux) on night 2. Data collected included melatonin levels, light exposure, sleepiness, cognitive workload, and simulated flight performance.RESULTS: The average delay in melatonin onset was 1.32 ± 0.37 h (range: 53 min to 1 h 56 min). Sleepiness (P = 0.044) and cognitive workload (P = 0.081) improved the night following the light treatment compared to the baseline. No systematic differences were identified in flight performance.DISCUSSION: The HEV light treatment successfully delayed the circadian phase of all participants even though participants' ambient light levels (including daylight) outside the laboratory were not controlled. These findings were used to develop circadian synchronization plans for aviators who are asked to transition from day to night operations. These plans will be assessed in a follow-on study in an operational unit.Shattuck NL, Matsangas P, Reily J, McDonough M, Giles KB. Using light to facilitate circadian entrainment from day to night flights. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2023; 94(2):66-73.

The effects of emotional trait factors on simulated flight performance under an acute psychological stress situation

Objective. Pilots are commonly exposed to some sources of emotional and cognitive stressors, especially for flight cadets, which have an important influence on flight safety. The present study aimed to study the relationship between emotional trait factors, emotional state, mental workload and simulated flight performance (SFP) under an acute psychological stress situation. Methods. Fifty-five undergraduates were included in the study. The Wong and Law emotional intelligence scale (WLEIS), state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI), stress rating questionnaire (SRQ) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration task load index (NASA-TLX) were used as data collection tools. Nine hours of simulated flight training were conducted in a simulator of the Type-6 Primary Trainer (Aviation University Air Force, China). The simulated flight assessment was taken as the acute psychological stressor. Results. SFP was negatively correlated with tensity and state anxiety. Emotional intelligence (EI) indirectly affected the SFP mediated by emotional state and workload, and emotional state had a mediating effect on the relationship between trait anxiety and SFP. Conclusions. The findings indicated that emotional trait factors (EI and trait anxiety) may indirectly affect SFP under an acute psychological stress situation, and emotional state (tensity and state anxiety) and mental workload played an important mediating role.

Emotional Intelligence and Emotional State Effects on Simulated Flight Performance

BACKGROUND: Flight cadets' emotion is a factor of great importance to flight training. So it is of profound significance to address how emotional factors affect flight training performance. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and simulated flight performance (SFP), and explore the mechanism of emotional state as a mediator in the effect of EI on SFP.METHODS: Ninety undergraduates took part in the study. EI (Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale), neuroticism (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised), anxiety (State Anxiety Inventory), and tension (Profile of Mood States) were collected. Conducted were 9 h of simulated flight training in a simulator of the Type 6 Primary Trainer. The Delphi Experts Grading Method was used to assess students' SFP. Mediation effect of emotional state was explored using regression analysis.RESULTS: EI was significantly correlated with neuroticism (r = -0.31), tension (r = -0.31), and anxiety (r = -0.31), respectively. Multiple mediation effects showed that emotional state mediated the association between EI and SFP. Tension especially mediated the associations between the Self Emotion Appraisals and Regulation of Emotion dimensions of EI and SFP. However, the Use of Emotion dimension of EI had a direct negative effect on SFP without the mediating role of emotional state.DISCUSSION: The findings indicated that EI was significantly correlated with emotional state (neuroticism, tension, and anxiety). EI may directly or indirectly affect SFP and tension played an important mediating role. Implications for the promotion of EI and emotional state to enhance performance in real flight training are discussed.Dai J, Wang H, Yang L, Wen Z. Emotional intelligence and emotional state effects on simulated flight performance. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2019; 90(2):101-108.

Helicopter Simulator Performance Prediction Using the Random Forest Method.

INTRODUCTION: Different aspects of the aviation system, such as pilot's fitness, supervision, and working conditions, interact to produce or protect against flight safety hazards. Machine learning methods such as Random Forests may help identify system characteristics with the potential to affect flight safety from the large number of candidate predictors that results when multiple system levels are considered simultaneously.METHODS: There were 54 pilot-related and occupational candidate predictors of simulator flight performance in 2 malfunction scenarios completed by 51 male European helicopter emergency medical services pilots derived from pilots' self-report questionnaires and aeromedical examination records. In a cross-sectional explorative analysis, the Random Forest method was used to screen for informative predictors. Predictors scoring above the critical threshold for the conditional permutation variable importance (VI) statistic were selected.RESULTS: In five predictors, the VI statistic averaged across 2000 Random Forest runs exceeded the selection threshold: higher perceived rewards (VI = 0.0691) and predictability (VI = 0.0501) at work were associated with higher performance scores, and higher physiological dysregulation (VI = 0.0495) and alanine aminotransferase (VI = 0.0224) with lower scores. Performance also differed between the simulators at the two training sites (VI = 0.0298).DISCUSSION: Random Forests may usefully complement previously applied methods for the identification of human factors safety hazards. The identified performance predictors suggest further areas with potential for safety improvements.Bauer H, Nowak D, Herbig B. Helicopter simulator performance prediction using the Random Forest method. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2018; 89(11):967-975.

How to Improve General Aviation Weather Training: Challenges and Recommendations for Designing Computer-Based Simulation Weather Training Scenarios

General Aviation (GA) accounts for most of the weather-related accidents in the United States. This may be due to several factors, such as inadequate weather knowledge and a lack of exposure to meteorological conditions. Currently, GA pilots are taught the theory on how to interpret weather charts and avoid weather systems; however, they receive little to no practice in such conditions. While simulation technology may be the solution, current GA flight training scenarios do not incorporate the effects of weather on simulated flight performance. Furthermore, these scenarios are designed for use on advanced simulators which GA pilots may not have access to. Therefore, this paper proposes the use of desktop simulation technology to provide GA pilots the opportunity to practice encounters of various meteorological conditions, such as low ceilings and visibility. This paper will also provide recommendations for developing such computer-based weather training scenarios.

Effect of Video-Game Experience and Position of Flight Stick Controller on Simulated-Flight Performance

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of video-game experience and flight-stick position on flying performance. The study divided participants into 2 groups; center- and side-stick groups, which were further divided into high and low level of video-game experience subgroups. The experiment consisted of 7 sessions of simulated flying, and in the last session, the flight stick controller was switched to the other position. Flight performance was measured in terms of the deviation of heading, altitude, and airspeed from their respective requirements. Participants with high experience in video games performed significantly better (p < .001) than the low-experienced group. Also, participants performed significantly better (p < .001) with the center-stick than the side-stick. When the side-stick controller was switched to the center-stick position, performance scores continued to increase (0.78 %). However, after switching from a center- to a side-stick controller, performance scores decreased (4.8%).

Nicotine Deprivation and Pilot Performance During Simulated Flight

Most airlines enforce no-smoking policies, potentially causing flight performance decrements in pilots who are smokers. We tested the hypotheses that nicotine withdrawal affects aircraft pilot performance within 12 h of smoking cessation and that chewing nicotine gum leads to significant relief of these withdrawal effects. There were 29 pilots, regular smokers, who were tested in a Frasca 141 flight simulator on two 13-h test days, each including three 75-min flights (0 hr, 6 hr, 12 hr) in a randomized, controlled trial. On the first day (baseline), all pilots smoked one cigarette per hour. On the second day, pilots were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) nicotine cigarettes; (2) nicotine gum; (3) placebo gum; (4) no cigarettes/no gum. Flight Summary Scores (FSS) were compared between groups with repeated measures ANOVAs. No statistically significant differences in overall simulator flight performance were revealed between pilots who smoked cigarettes and pilots who were not allowed to smoke cigarettes or chew nicotine gum, but there was a trend for pilots who were not allowed to smoke to perform worse. However, pilots who chewed placebo gum performed significantly worse during the 6-h (FSS = -0.03) as well as during the 12-h flight (FSS = -0.08) than pilots who chewed nicotine gum (FSS = 0.15 / 0.30, respectively). Results suggest that nicotine withdrawal effects can impair aircraft pilot performance within 12 h of smoking cessation and that during smoking abstinence chewing one stick of 4-mg nicotine gum per hour may lead to significantly better overall flight performance compared to chewing placebo gum.

An experimental validation method of wind tunnel measurements on FIFA approved footballs using kicking tests in wind-free conditions

This study sought to determine the in-flight performance of footballs in a wind free environment to validate against simulated flight performance based on measured wind tunnel data. A mechanical kicker was used to provide consistent kicking parameters capturing flight trajectories using High Speed Video and a radar tracking system. Simulated trajectories using the same initial conditions were generated using aerodynamic drag and lateral force data acquired in a low speed wind tunnel. The results demonstrate that the ball performance ranking based on RMS deviation in-flight is the same for the real kicks and that predicted from the wind tunnel tests.

Effect of Caffeine on Simulator Flight Performance in Sleep-Deprived Military Pilot Students

Caffeine has been suggested to act as a countermeasure against fatigue in military operations. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, the effect of caffeine on simulator flight performance was examined in 13 military pilots during 37 hours of sleep deprivation. Each subject performed a flight mission in simulator four times. The subjects received either a placebo (six subjects) or 200 mg of caffeine (seven subjects) 1 hour before the simulated flights. A moderate 200 mg intake of caffeine was associated with higher axillary temperatures, but it did not affect subjectively assessed sleepiness. Flight performance was similar in both groups during the four rounds flown under sleep deprivation. However, subjective evaluation of overall flight performance in the caffeine group tended to be too optimistic, indicating a potential flight safety problem. Based on our results, we do not recommend using caffeine pills in military flight operations.

Are Individual Differences in Fatigue Vulnerability Related to Baseline Differences in Cortical Activation?

Recent evidence suggests that underlying patterns of cortical activation may partially account for individual differences in susceptibility to the effects of sleep deprivation. Here, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine the activation of military pilots whose sleep-deprivation vulnerability previously was quantified. A Sternberg Working Memory Task (SWMT; S. Sternberg, 1966) was completed alternately with a control task during a 13-min blood oxygen level-dependent fMRI scan. Examination of the activated voxels in response to SWMT indicated that, as a group, the pilots were more similar to fatigue-resistant nonpilots than to fatigue-vulnerable nonpilots. Within the pilots, cortical activation was significantly related to fatigue vulnerability on simulator-flight performance. These preliminary data suggest that baseline fMRI scan activation during a working memory task may correlate with fatigue susceptibility.

The Effects of 37 Hours of Continuous Wakefulness On the Physiological Arousal, Cognitive Performance, Self-Reported Mood, and Simulator Flight Performance of F-117A Pilots

Pilot fatigue poses a serious threat to operational safety, but understanding the nature of the problem and the times at which pilots are most at risk will facilitate operationally relevant fatigue-management strategies. This investigation sought to address these issues in a controlled investigation of the impact of sustained wakefulness on Air Force aviators. Ten current and qualified F-117 pilots completed the Multi-At-tribute Task Battery (MATB), the Profile of Mood States (POMS), a resting eyes-open and eyes-closed EEG, and a standardized flight evaluation in an F-117 flight simulator at 5-hr intervals during the final 23 hours of a 37-hr period of continuous wakefulness. Results indicated significant decrements in mood, cognition, central nervous system activation, and flight skills began to occur in the predawn hours during a night without sleep. However, the most serious operationally relevant decrements appeared at approximately 0700 (after 25 hours without sleep) and persisted throughout the remainder of the deprivation period. The decrements suggested in the real world crew coordination likely will decline, information processing will become impaired, and a wide array of basic capabilities will be degraded as a result of compromised vigilance, poor situational awareness, and sluggish reaction time. Even the well-practiced flight skills of experienced pilots are clearly susceptible to the insidious effects of sleep loss. These quantified effects of untreated sleep deprivation will provide a baseline against which promising fatigue countermeasures can be assessed.

Relationship of age and simulated flight performance.

To determine the relationship between age and aviator performance on a flight simulator. A cross-sectional observational study. The sample consisted of 100 aviators aged 50 to 69 (mean = 58). Pilots were tested on a Frasca 141 flight simulator (Urbana, IL), linked to a UNIX-based IRIS 4D computer (Silicon Graphics, Mountain View, CA), which both generated graphics of the environment in which the pilots flew and collected data concerning the aircraft's flight conditions. We found that increased age was significantly associated with decreased aviator performance on a flight simulator. Although there was a significant relationship between increased age and decreased aviator performance, age explained 22% or less of the variance of performance on different flight tasks; hence, other factors are also important in explaining the performance of older pilots.

Vortex burst model for the vortex lattice method

'Lin, K. C., Dead-Reckoning in Distributed Interactive Simulation, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference of the ChineseAmerican Scholars Association of Florida, Miami, FL, 1992, pp. 1-5. Hoffman, L. L., and Lin, K. C., An Experimental Design for Detecting Optimal Simulated Flight Performance on Distributed Interactive Systems, Inst. for Simulation and Training, Univ. of Central Florida, TR IST-CR-93-16, Orlando, FL, May 1993.

Simulated Sustained Flight Operations and Performance, Part 2: Effects of Dextro-Methamphetamine

As aircrew performance declines during periods of sustained flight operations (SUSOPs), countermeasures become more important. This study examined the ability of the central nervous system stimulant d-methamphetamine to ameliorate the detrimental effects of a simulated SUSOP on subjective fatigue and cognitive performance. Subjects (N = 25) repeatedly completed three subjective questionnaires and several subtests of the Unified Tri-Service Cognitive Performance Assessment Battery (UTC-PAB) and the Walter Reed Performance Assessment Battery (WR-PAB) during a simulated SUSOP. The scenario consisted of a 9-hr planning session followed by 4 hr of rest and a 14-hr mission. After 6 hr of rest, the 9 hr-4 hr-14 hr work-rest-work pattern was repeated. In a double-blind procedure, 13 subjects were administered 10mg/70kg body weight of d-methamphetamine 4 hr 20 min into the second mission, whereas the other 12 subjects received a placebo. Consistent with our preceding article in this series (Neri, Shappell, & DeJoh...

Simulated Sustained Flight Operations and Performance, Part 1: Effects of Fatigue

Sustained flight operations are likely to produce fatigue and performance decrement in aviators. We assessed changes in cognitive performance using a workhest schedule modeled on successive long-range attack missions. Twelve subjects performed several subtests of the Unified Tri-Service Cognitive Performance Assessment Battery and the Walter Reed Performance Assess- ment Battery 18 times during a simulated sustained operation. The scenario consisted of a 9-hr planning session followed by a 4-hr rest period and a 14-hr daytime mission. After 6 hr of rest, subjects repeated this schedule with a nighttime mission. For two spatial tests, subjects showed linear increases in response rate and one of its components, error rate. Subjects appeared to change strategy as the study progressed, possibly exchanging a higher failure rate for a savings in time. Any tendency to take chances when fatigued may have serious implications for aircrew in sustained operations.

Effects of Chemical Defense Antidotes (Atropine) on Aviator Performance (Simulated Flight and Zero Input Tracking Analyzer)

Army aviation is at serious risk in chemical and biological warfare environments. One of the potential countermeasures for aviators against the chemical threat is the development of antidote and pretreatment drugs. Just as the chemical agent carries the threat of degrading aviator performance, antidote and pretreatment drugs could independently produce problems either alone or in combination with an agent. This paper briefly outlines part of the first phase of a systematic program using controlled, simulated flight conditions and a Zero Input Tracking Analyzer (ZITA) to identify and measure flight performance and psychomotor effects of unchallenged atropine (one of the chemical defense antidotes) on aviators. Each of 12 U.S. Army helicopter aviators voluntarily received 3 dosages: 0 mg (saline solution), 2 mg of atropine sulfate, and 4 mg of atropine sulfate. Results indicate that simulator flight performance data did prove to be sensitive in identifying and measuring effects of 4 mg of atropine. Additionally, some ZITA tests showed a statistically significant degradation with the 4 mg dosage.