Silk Road Research Articles

THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND KOREA: FROM WAR TO VASSALAGE

The purpose of the article is an in-depth analysis of the complex relationship between the Mongolian Empire and the Korean state from the period of military conflicts to the establishment of vassalage. The research is aimed at identifying the key factors determining the course and historical significance of these relations. The novelty of the study lies in an in-depth analysis of the numerous Mongol campaigns against Korea and the resistance of Korea. The main direction of the research is to study the impact of these events on the historical dynamics of the region and the development of society as a whole. Special attention is paid to the analysis of diplomatic and trade relations between the nomads of the Far East and Korea, as well as China's role in the fate of Korea as a traditional overlord. Despite the difficult times, the article emphasizes that Korea was able to maintain its autonomy and become a key hub on the Great Silk Road, which contributed to the development of handicraft production and increased its authority. The article represents an important contribution to historical science, enriching our understanding of the complex relationships in the Northeast Asian region. The practical significance of the article lies in the possibility of applying its results to a deeper analysis of modern geopolitical processes. The research methodology includes an analytical approach to data interpretation and a comparative analysis of historical events. The authors analyze the impact of the collapse of the clan system and the crisis of the central government on the military system of the Korean state, paying attention to changes in the mobilization system, which turned out to be one of the reasons for the deterioration of the political and social situation in the country. As a result of the research, the key factors determining the course of relations between the Mongolian Empire and the Korean state have been identified. The analysis allows us to conclude that these events are important for shaping the historical trajectory of both peoples and the region as a whole.

Ecological niche measurement and high-quality development of "the Belt and Road" core area.

A new stage in promoting the construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt Core Area, and Xinjiang has been transformed from a relatively closed inland area into an open border. In order to promote the high-quality development of Southern Xinjiang and solve the imbalance contradiction between the development of the Northern Xinjiang and Southern Xinjiang, taking the four districts in Southern Xinjiang as the study area, constructing a high-quality development ecological niche index system of three levels, namely economic, social and ecological, adopting the entropy method to assign weights to the evaluation indexes, and measuring the ecological niche width and the degree of ecological niche overlap of this region in the period from 2011 to 2020. The results show that: Firstly, tourism has the greatest impact on the ecological niche of economic development in state N, with a weighting of 14.18%; Secondly, the ecological status width of economic development in state N demonstrates a structural characteristic of "low level and low gap". The average value of ecological niche width is at class III, indicating a low development status and weak regional influence; Thirdly, the ecological niche overlap of state N is significantly influenced by spatial factors. Regions Z and S are closer together, resulting in higher competition for resource utilization and an average ecological niche overlap at class II. The other two regions are at class III. According to the theory of ecological niche expansion and separation, a specialization separation strategy should be adopted for areas with "low width and high overlap", and a strengthening expansion strategy should be adopted for areas with "low width and low overlap", to optimize the structure of ecological niches and promote high-quality development of the region.

Research on Dunhuang Burial Practices: “One and Diverse”: Dunhuang Murals in Gansu as an Example

As an important junction on the ancient Silk Road in China, Dunhuang's historical remains reflect the social order, social life, and social values of that time. To study the funeral customs and concepts in ancient Dunhuang, this paper analyzed the funeral customs by examining Dunhuang murals and a substantial amount of literature searching related essays online. In particular, the text compares and relates the funeral practices of ethnic minorities and the Han Chinese. It is found that the evolution of funeral customs in Dunhuang reflects the characteristics of the concept of all-in-one pluralism, representing a unified approach to diversity and inclusion. In this region of Dunhuang, the funeral customs observed include not only those derived from Taoism and Confucianism, which were the dominant religious traditions among the Han Chinese, but also those derived from Zoroastrianism, which was practiced by the ethnic minorities, as well as from exotic forms of Buddhism. This means that different regions and religions constantly fused and were absorbed into one another in Dunhuang, eventually becoming part of the excellent traditional Chinese culture. This demonstrates that different cultures can exist within a given practice, not only without mutual exclusion but also by displaying different characteristics.

Improved urbanization-vegetation cover coordination associated with economic level in port cities along the Maritime Silk Road

The sustainability of port cities affects the competitiveness of their hinterland in international shipping and maritime trade, however, the coordinated relationship between urbanization and ecological environment in port cities has received less attention. In this study, we quantitatively analyzed the urban expansion process and vegetation cover changes in 44 port cities along the Maritime Silk Road during 2000–2020 based on multi-source remote sensing data. Adopting the urbanization-vegetation cover index (UVCI), we measured the coordination relationship between urban expansion and vegetation cover and the dynamics during 2000–2020. The results found that all port cities experienced dramatic development from 2000 to 2020, with an average increase in artificial surface area of 127.81%. The 63.64% of port cities experienced increased vegetation cover, thus the overall UVCI in the port city moved toward a more coordinated and sustainable pattern with significant heterogeneity at the economic levels. High-economy port cities have generally become more coordinated, while most low- and medium-economy cities still face challenges of conflicting urban expansion and ecological preservation. This study contributes to the development of government policies that support green and sustainable urban development in port cities, and provides insights for rationalizing development policies in port cities worldwide.

The Economical and Geographical Importance of Lapis Route

This research explores the intricate web of the Lapis Route, an ancient trade route that formerly linked Afghanistan with the Mediterranean Sea. This study examines the geographical and historical relevance of this ancient road using a qualitative research approach, building on insights from numerous books, journals, and other sources. It focuses on the valuable lapis lazuli gemstone that contributed to the route's notoriety. The research delves into the various segments of the Lapis Route and its convergence with the Silk Road, unveiling the complex web of commerce that thrived amongst various societies. It reveals the significance of the Silk Road historically and emphasizes how it shaped both economic development and cross-cultural exchange. In addition, the study looks into the economic importance of silk, a highly prized item that traveled the Silk Road and supported the region's economy. The study concludes by examining the historical, cultural, and economic significance of the Silk Road and the Lapis Route in Afghanistan. The report addresses the opportunities and problems related to transit and commercial development, emphasizing the possible advantages of reviving the Silk Road. It highlights the possibilities that the revival of this historic trade route holds for fostering regional collaboration and economic progress. This study provides important insights into the historical, geographical, and economic relevance of the Silk Road and the Lapis Route by analyzing them. It draws attention to the routes' lasting impact and their potential to support Afghanistan's and the region's future economic growth.

Belt Road initiative(BRI):Global Strategy of Economic & Politic Made in China

This article is a brief exploring of BRI (Belt Road Initiative) which is launched on 2013 in China and worked by double spearheads covered global economic and politic relationship of counterpart countries. By the record, BRI has 139 counterpart countries in the world. It shown quite succeed endeavor; since China achieve it in short time, relatively. Some highlight points of the exploring are the sense of initiative regarding to raise up historical memories of Silk Road and basic international trade theory of Comparative Advantage, which is innovated and applied on contemporary global economic and politic practices. At the eventually, this paper is concluded that BRI’s way is worth to be adopted as a model to build an advantage business strategy.

Understanding China’s Grand Strategy Through the Belt and Road Initiative

China’s transition from a country striving for self-reliance in the 1950s to the world’s dominant power in 2020 is remarkable. The economic and foreign policies it followed during various phases of development helped the country to achieve the targets and goals that it set up for itself. The ambitious Belt and Road Initiative by President Xi Jinping to rebuild old Silk routes and to build new connectivity projects containing road, rail and sea transport corridors include in China’s Grand Strategy. That is to achieve self-sufficiency of up to 70% in advanced technology sectors by 2025 and to reach a preeminent position in the world by 2049. This includes protecting security interests as well as the flow of energy resources required for a steady progress. The article provides an overview of China’s progress and plans from Mao’s regime to Xi Jinping’s presidentship. In the process, it explains China’s changed priorities, interests and how foreign policy also changed according to the changing economic policies.

INFLUENCE OF SILK ROAD CULTURE ON MODERN DESIGN: ARTISTIC FEATURES OF CHINESE BROCADE PATTERNS

Goal: this study aims to analyze the influence of Silk Road culture on the style of brocade patterns in the Tang and Ming Dynasties of China, as well as to consider the practices of using brocade motifs of ancient dynasties in modern design. Methodology: based on the research of scientific literature, this article compares and analyses the stylistic characteristics of brocade patterns: connected beads, curly grass, treasure and cloud; the analysis makes it possible to trace the process of formation and evolution of brocade patterns in the Tang Dynasty. The methods of figurative and stylistic, formal analysis, methods of systematisation, and processing of results are also involved. Results. The study pointed out that the opening of the Silk Road promoted cultural exchanges between East and West, and the prosperity of politics, economy, and culture in the Tang Dynasty promoted the diversity and development of patterns. The above-mentioned motives, through integration with foreign cultures, formed symmetrical beauty, curvilinear beauty, and symbolic characteristics of Tang Dynasty patterns. In the example of the creativity of the modern Chinese designer Chen Liwen, the transformation of the motif «Tiger Sniffs the Rose» and the image of the Chinese tiger of the Ming Dynasty period in the development of modern design products is shown. Scientific novelty. This article reveals the historical evolution of the popular brocade patterns in the Tang and Ming Dynasties of China, summarizes his unique artistic style, and provides inspiration for contemporary clothing innovation design. Practical significance. The significance of this study lies in providing historical data for the integration of ethnic cultures and demonstrating the overall characteristics and evolution process of the Tang and Ming Dynasties patterns.

Interplays and Interactions on the Maritime and Overland Silk Roads in the First Millennium ce

This article concerns the contacts and interactions that took place on the Maritime Silk Road during the first millennium ce. The term ‘Maritime Silk Road’, like the ‘Silk Road’ itself, can be quite vague. It has come to mean any trade or travel from Japan and Korea across the sea routes of East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, Africa, to the Mediterranean and Europe. The focus here, however, follows the subject of the October 2021 ‘China, India and Iran’ conference in Cambridge, where the article was first delivered, and is confined to China, Southeast Asia, India and Persia. It first explains how my interest in this topic came about. Then it highlights some of the ways in which these interconnections manifested themselves during the first millennium by analysing examples from the Chinese dynastic histories and the travel accounts of Buddhist pilgrims. Finally, it discusses two sets of examples of these phenomena mentioned in Rong Xinjiang’s 榮新江, Sichou zhilu yu dong-xi wenhua jiaoliu 絲綢之路與東西文化交流. One of these examples concerns China’s relations with the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 ce) during the Tang period (618–907), and the other concerns the overland and maritime movement of Persian nobles and merchants to China after the fall of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 ce), and their integration into Chinese society.

Quantitative analysis on the impact factors of salt weathering for sandstone grottoes along Silk Road, China

A large number of exquisite sandstone grottoes remaining along the Silk Road in Northwest China suffer from severe salt damage due to the vulnerability of the sandstone materials used and long-term continuous fluctuation of environmental conditions. Exploring the mechanism of salt weathering is crucial for the conservation of these grottoes. This study aims to quantitatively analyze the damage potential and the main impact factors of salt weathering in 14 grottoes along the Silk Road that were selected and investigated by using visual evaluation, salt analysis including thermodynamic modeling, and a comprehensive evaluation based on the entropy weight method. The results indicate that salt weathering of the sandstone grottoes is primarily characterized by efflorescences, peeling, and powdering. The overall salt content within the weathering layer typically exceeds a threshold of 1 %. Within the semi-arid area, the humidity fluctuations critical for significant volume changes in crystalline salts fall within the ranges 46–76 % and 16–30 %. In the semi-humid area, these ranges are 58–90 %, 42–50 %, and 16–30 %. A total of 14 salts can precipitate in the study area with NaCl, NaNO3, KNO3, Na2SO4·xH2O and several double salts occuring most frequently. Generally, the damage degree of sandstones grottoes in the semi-humid area is more serious than that in the semi-arid area. Through a comparison of visual inspection and more comprehensive quantitative evaluation, it has been confirmed that the salt damage is primarily influenced by the factors salt content, salt type, and environmental conditions. Furthermore, the order of influence for each factor on salt weathering can be ranked as follows: salt content > salt type > environmental conditions. This study quantitatively reveals the impact of various factors on salt weathering and proposes a method to evaluate the salt damage potential, which is of great significance for the preventive conservation of sandstone grottoes.

Prevalence, types, and characteristics of headache in Behcets disease without involvement of the central nervous system in the Syrian population: a case-cohort study.

Oral ulcers, genital ulcers, and uveitis represent the typical trial of Behcet's disease (BD). It is well common on the Old Silk Road. The mucocutaneous lesions are the hallmark of BD, but neurological involvement is one of the severe symptoms. Headaches may be an early sign of BD neurological involvement. This study aims to investigate the headache prevalence and its types, and characteristics in a Syrian sample of BD patients. BD patients were clinically interviewed and examined to collect their information, symptoms, and signs. the International Study Group for Behcet's Disease diagnosis criteria was used to confirm the BD diagnosis. The International Classification of headaches was used when classifying the headaches. One hundred twenty participants were included in the study. half of them were BD patients and the control group was also 60 participants. Among Syrian BD patients, 36.7% suffer from primary headaches and 36.7% suffer from secondary headaches. These findings were not significantly different between the BD patients and the healthy population. Our results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups. Headache should not be considered a predictor for neurological involvement among BD patients. Additional attention to BD patients or the specific treatment for headaches is not required and does not differ from the general population.

An Exploration of Some Predictors of Quality of Life-Related to the Innate Immune System, Inflammation, and Disease Activity in Patients with Behcet's Syndrome: An Analytical Cross-sectional Study.

Behçet's disease (BD) has a growing prevalence in Silk Road countries. The aim of our cross-sectional study was to explore the clinical and molecular predictors of quality of life in BD patients. One hundred and fifty consecutive Iranian BD patients with an age range between 20-50 years were included. The Leeds Behçet's disease quality of life (BDQoL) in Persian form was fulfilled to evaluate the quality of life. Anthropometric measurements were carried out using the calibrated scales. Iranian Behcet's Disease Dynamic Activity Measure (IBDDAM), Behcet's disease current activity form (BDCAF), and Total Inflammatory Activity Index (TIAI) were used to assess BD activity. mRNA expression of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and TLR4) and tumor-necrosis-factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels in serum were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and ELISA, respectively. Multiple linear backward regression at P = 0.1 was used to study the potential predictors of quality of life. TLR2 and BDCAF were shown to be the most important predictors of quality of life in BD patients by 22%. There were positive associations between them (β = 0.326, p = 0.013 for BDCAF; β = 0.366, p = 0.006 for TLR2) and BDQoL value. Higher TLR2 expression as a key protein in recognizing pathogens by innate immunity and BDCAF value as a comprehensive BD assessing scale contribute to poor quality of life among BD patients. Emphasizing therapeutically, approaches associated with lower TLR2 expression and BDCAF value can be considered in future studies.

The contrasting interannual variation and mechanism of the first rainy season precipitation before and after the South China Sea summer monsoon onset

The first rainy season (FRS) is usually considered as a whole when its precipitation variability and the underlying mechanism are discussed. This strategy does not consider the South China Sea summer monsoon (SCSSM) onset occurring within the FRS, which implies an abrupt change in nature and, thereby, the possible characteristics and mechanism of precipitation. To overcome this deficiency, this study divides the FRS into two stages before and after the SCSSM onset, revisits their interannual precipitation variability, and finds remarkable differences in the two FRS stages. During the FRS stage before the SCSSM onset, enhanced precipitation is accompanied by an anticyclone centered on the Indian Peninsula and extending further eastward to the Philippines, active synoptic-scale disturbances in the upstream regions of South China and an anomalous anticyclone in the mid-latitudes of East Asia. This configuration reinforces the warm-moisture air transportation from the Bay of Bengal and the South China Sea and cold air invasion from the mid-latitude regions to South China. It shapes the pattern of initial ascending motions over South China by both dynamical and thermal forcing. During the FRS stage after the SCSSM onset, in contrast, enhanced precipitation is accompanied by an anomalous anticyclone in the western North Pacific and the mid-latitude Silk Road pattern. This configuration reinforces warm-moisture air transportation from the tropical Western Pacific and cold air from the northwest direction to South China and shapes the initial ascending motion mainly by thermal forcing. The interannual precipitation variability is tied to a tropical Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) dipole for the FRS period before the SCSSM onset but not after. Such a difference is possibly due to the changes in the basic thermal-dynamical state of the atmosphere near the Maritime Continent and the tropical Northwestern Pacific and their different responses to the SST forcing before and after the SCSSM onset.

Digital Trans-Pacific Silk Road and Phases of China-Latin American Connectivity: From Silver to AI

In this paper, we aim to document and analyze the long arc of connectivity between China and Latin America. First, using analytical international trade and economic tools, we provide a new economic perspective of the First Globalization–-the Ming and early Qing China’s economic and business links with Latin America and Europe. Second, due to U.S. government trade policies toward China in the 1990s, the Second China’s Globalization was ushered in with its entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO). During this second phase, China exchanged manufactured goods with minerals and resources from Latin America. Finally, the tough technology and trade stance by the Trump and Biden Administrations prompted China to intensify the third phase of China interaction with Latin America. For the 2020s and beyond, one important pillar of the Third China-Latin America-Europe Globalization is heightened efforts for China to increase its digital-AI, telecommunication and platform business presence and access into the Latin American markets. To enrich our analysis, we will provide Chinese-style digital-AI business and economic models to help illustrate our discussions. Throughout our paper, we want to point out that government policies were instrumental in bringing forth these Three Globalizations that involve China-Latin America-Europe.

Picking pearls from the Silk Road: Insights into the spider (Arachnida, Araneae) diversity in Georgia from the Caucasus Barcode of Life (CaBOL) project. Part III

The present study contains information about a small number of spiders collected between 2018 and 2023. The spiders were determined to species level and partially assisted by genetic barcoding of the COI gene. Among the resulting 33 species, 23 species and three genera, are recorded from Georgia for the first time, of which 11 are new records for the entire Caucasus. Of the 26 barcoded specimens representing 18 species, six species (Agroeca maculata L. Koch, 1879; Aituaria eriashvilii (Marusik, 1987); Evippa sjostedti Schenkel, 1936; Lathys cf. lehtineni Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Omelko, 2014; Zelotes segrex (Simon, 1878); Lathys lehtineni Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Omelko, 2014; Maculoncus obscurus Tanasevitch, Ponomarev & Chumachenko, 2016) are barcoded for the first time. In addition, 12 new regional records for 10 species are provided. The collecting information for each record is provided in detail, together with a discussion of the barcoding results and remarks, supported by 48 diagnostic drawings of 22 first-recorded species. A potential synonymy of Pelecopsis odontophora (Kulczyński, 1895) with P. parallela (Wider, 1834) and Bassaniodes loeffleri (Roewer, 1955) with B. pseudorectilineus (Wunderlich, 1995) is discussed.

On China’s Navigation Rights and Interests in the Tumen River and the Japanese Sea

To achieve the goals of the Polar Silk Road strategy and boost Northeast China’s economy, China should focus on economic and trade cooperation in the Japanese Sea. Despite not being a coastal State, China can still expand its navigation rights and interests within the region. The Japanese Sea has not been fully utilized by China due to its lack of direct access, and the surrounding States’ unstable political conditions have hindered long-term economic development arrangements. This paper proposes that China should develop its right of access to the Japanese Sea through the Tumen Region and assert the navigation rights and interests of third States. China can use current agreements and international law principles to uphold its right of access to the Japanese Sea through the Tumen River. It can also invest in overseas ports and improve transportation networks to implement the strategy of "accessing the sea through harbors of other States." Furthermore, China can strengthen its presence and use of shipping routes in the Japanese Sea by strengthening regional trade routes, connecting shipping routes with the Arctic, and expanding the abroad shipping of domestic goods. Moreover, this paper suggests that China should analyze the navigation rights and interests of third States in the territorial sea, exclusive economic zones, and straits surrounding the Japanese Sea to develop its sea routes. By doing so, China can realize its goals of the Polar Silk Road strategy and revitalize Northeast China’s economy.

Research on the Historical Experience of the Northwest Ancient Silk Road under the Background of "The Belt and Road" Construction

"Belt and Road" represents a corridor of collaboration and mutual gain, aimed at facilitating balanced growth and widespread prosperity. It is a peaceful road to enhance understanding and trust and strengthen all-round exchanges. After Zhang Qian's departure, the ancient Silk Road in the Northwest after the Western Regions was unblocked, political and economic ties between China and foreign countries under normal conditions were established, and the Silk Road trade was further developed. Today, the "Belt and Road" is not a replica of the "Silk Road" but a continuation of the "Silk Road", The "Belt and Road" initiative not only brings huge economic extension to China's economic construction, but also promotes the economic prosperity of countries in the world, strengthens political exchanges among countries in the world, and makes great contributions to the construction of world civilization. In this context, we need to deepen our understanding and understanding of the ancient Silk Road from history, and study the historical value brought by this ancient important channel from more angles. The important role is to learn from historical experience so that it can be used forever.

Overlapping Cosmologies in Asia: Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Approaches: 4 (Crossroads – History of Interactions across the Silk Routes), edited by Bill M. Mak and Eric Huntington

Overlapping Cosmologies in Asia: Transcultural and Interdisciplinary Approaches: 4 (Crossroads – History of Interactions across the Silk Routes), edited by Bill M. Mak and Eric Huntington

The Significance of Chinese Cultural Dissemination from The Perspective of the "Silk Road".

With the gradual advancement of the Silk Road Economic Belt, the cultural dissemination of the Silk Road has also become very important, and it is necessary to rely on the function of the Silk Road to spread China's excellent traditional culture and promote the development between China and the countries along the Silk Road. How to make good use of the intermediary nature of the Silk Road to spread China's culture, this paper will explain the significance of Chinese cultural communication from the cultural communication channels of the ancient Silk Road, and put forward suggestions on how to better promote the communication of Chinese culture in combination with the current era.

The Silk Road: A Modern Analogy of Globalization and Cultural Exchange

The Silk Road: A Modern Analogy of Globalization and Cultural Exchange