Silk Nests Research Articles

Testing early detection of pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa nests using UAV-based methods

Early detection of insect infestation is a key to the adoption of control measures appropriated to each local condition. The use of remote sensing was recommended for a quick scanning of large areas, although it does not work well with signals bearing low intensity or items that are difficult to detect. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV, or drone) may help in getting closer to individual trees and detect atypical signals of small dimensions. The larvae of the pine processionary moth (PPM, Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775, Lepidoptera, Notodontidae) build conspicuous silk nests on the external parts of the host plants at the beginning of the winter and their early detection may prompt managers to adopt management techniques. This work aims at testing two deep learning methods (Region-based Convolutional Neural Network - R-CNN and You Only Look Once - YOLO) to detect the nests under three different conditions of host plant species and forest stands in southern Europe. YOLO algorithm provided better results and it allowed us to achieve F1-scores as high as 0.826 and 0.696 for the detection of presence / absence and the individual nests, respectively. The detection of all the nests that can be present on a tree is not achievable with either UAV scanning or traditional ground observation, therefore the integration of the methods may allow the complete efficiency of the surveillance. The use of UAV combined with Artificial Intelligence (AI) image analysis is recommended for further use in forest and urban settings for the detection of the PPM nests. The recommended methods can be extended to other pest systems, especially when specific symptoms can be associated with an insect pest species.

A trunk‐nesting form of the processionary caterpillar Ochrogaster lunifer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) restricted to a single host species Corymbia tessellaris (Myrtaceae), with some comparisons to the ground‐nesting form

AbstractThe Bag‐shelter moth Ochrogaster lunifer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae: Thaumetopoeinae) is an endemic species of medical and veterinary importance that occurs throughout Australia. The gregarious species is variable with four phylogenetic clades recently identified. One clade comprises trunk‐nesters restricted to one host: the Moreton Bay Ash, Corymbia tessellaris (Myrtaceae). Here, we describe aspects of the biology and ecology of this distinctive nesting form dupped the ‘tree‐hugger’ due to its flattish, thick silk nests that hug the trunk and larger branches. The form is univoltine; egg masses are laid in spring and the gregarious larvae develop through seven instars until the mature larvae stop feeding in autumn and later leave the nest (in a procession). The larvae over‐winter in the ground as pre‐pupae in a loose cocoon of silk. Pupation occurs in late winter and adults emerge in spring. Forty‐six per cent of monitored egg masses succeeded in developing through the lifecycle. Tachinids were common parasites of older larvae. Tree‐hugger nests provided some insulation against summer heat during the mornings, but the physical characteristics of the nests and tree trunks and the average southern orientation of the nests likely protect larvae against extreme heat. The tree‐hugger form of O. lunifer appears morphologically similar to the more ubiquitous ground‐nesting form, but there are differences in the colour of egg masses and adults, and in the behaviour and ecology of the larvae and adults. This information adds to the body of evidence supporting the definition of separate species within what is currently known as O. lunifer.

Biodegradation of Pine Processionary Caterpillar Silk Is Mediated by Elastase- and Subtilisin-like Proteases

Pine processionary caterpillar nests are made from raw silk. Fibroin protein is the main component of silk which, in the case of pine processionary caterpillar, has some unusual properties such as a higher resistance to chemical hydrolysis. Isolation of microorganisms naturally present in silk nests led to identification of Bacillus licheniformis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains that in a defined minimal medium were able to carry out extensive silk biodegradation. A LasB elastase-like protein from P. aeruginosa was shown to be involved in silk biodegradation. A recombinant form of this protein expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography was able to efficiently degrade silk in an in vitro assay. However, silk biodegradation by B. licheniformis strain was mediated by a SubC subtilisin-like protease. Homologous expression of a subtilisin Carlsberg encoding gene (subC) allowed faster degradation compared to the biodegradation kinetics of a wildtype B. licheniformis strain. This work led to the identification of new enzymes involved in biodegradation of silk materials, a finding which could lead to possible applications for controlling this pest and perhaps have importance from sanitary and biotechnological points of view.

A new locality of the European yellow sac spider Cheiracanthium punctorium (Villers, 1789) (Araneae: Cheiracanthiidae) in eastern Poland

This is the first record of the European yellow sac spider Cheiracanthium punctorium (Villers, 1789) from the Lublin Upland (SE Poland). A dozen or so silk nests containing these spiders were found among goldenrod stems (Solidago sp.) on a dry meadow near Chodel, a village in the valley of the River Chodelka on 8 October 2021.

Host Plant Availability and Nest-Site Selection of the Social Spider Stegodyphus dumicola Pocock, 1898 (Eresidae).

An animals' habitat defines the resources that are available for its use, such as host plants or food sources, and the use of these resources are critical for optimizing fitness. Spiders are abundant in all terrestrial habitats and are often associated with vegetation, which may provide structure for anchoring capture webs, attract insect prey, or provide protective function. Social spiders construct sedentary communal silk nests on host plants, but we know little about whether and how they make nest-site decisions. We examined host plant use in relation to host plant availability in the social spider Stegodyphus dumicola Pocock, 1898 (Eresidae) across different arid biomes in Namibia and analysed the role of host plant characteristics (height, spines, scent, sturdiness) on nest occurrence. Host plant communities and densities differed between locations. Spider nests were relatively more abundant on Acacia spp., Boscia foetida, Combretum spp., Dichrostachys cinerea, Parkinsonia africana, Tarchonanthus camphoratus, and Ziziphus mucronatus, and nests survived longer on preferred plant genera Acacia, Boscia and Combretum. Spider nests were relatively more abundant on plants higher than 2 m, and on plants with thorns and with a rigid structure. Our results suggest that spiders display differential use of host plant species, and that characteristics such as rigidity and thorns confer benefits such as protection from browsing animals.

Antimicrobial Compounds in the Volatilome of Social Spider Communities.

Social arthropods such as termites, ants, and bees are among others the most successful animal groups on earth. However, social arthropods face an elevated risk of infections due to the dense colony structure, which facilitates pathogen transmission. An interesting hypothesis is that social arthropods are protected by chemical compounds produced by the arthropods themselves, microbial symbionts, or plants they associate with. Stegodyphus dumicola is an African social spider species, inhabiting communal silk nests. Because of the complex three-dimensional structure of the spider nest antimicrobial volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a promising protection against pathogens, because of their ability to diffuse through air-filled pores. We analyzed the volatilomes of S. dumicola, their nests, and capture webs in three locations in Namibia and assessed their antimicrobial potential. Volatilomes were collected using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) tubes and analyzed using GC/Q-TOF. We showed the presence of 199 VOCs and tentatively identified 53 VOCs. More than 40% of the tentatively identified VOCs are known for their antimicrobial activity. Here, six VOCs were confirmed by analyzing pure compounds namely acetophenone, 1,3-benzothiazole, 1-decanal, 2-decanone, 1-tetradecene, and docosane and for five of these compounds the antimicrobial activity were proven. The nest and web volatilomes had many VOCs in common, whereas the spider volatilomes were more differentiated. Clear differences were identified between the volatilomes from the different sampling sites which is likely justified by differences in the microbiomes of the spiders and nests, the plants, and the different climatic conditions. The results indicate the potential relevance of the volatilomes for the ecological success of S. dumicola.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the intertidal spider (Desis jiaxiangi) provides novel insights into the adaptive evolution of the mitogenome and the evolution of spiders

BackgroundAlthough almost all extant spider species live in terrestrial environments, a few species live fully submerged in freshwater or seawater. The intertidal spiders (genus Desis) built silk nests within coral crevices can survive submerged in high tides. The diving bell spider, Argyroneta aquatica, resides in a similar dynamic environment but exclusively in freshwater. Given the pivotal role played by mitochondria in supplying most energy for physiological activity via oxidative phosphorylation and the environment, herein we sequenced the complete mitogenome of Desis jiaxiangi to investigate the adaptive evolution of the aquatic spider mitogenomes and the evolution of spiders.ResultsWe assembled a complete mitogenome of the intertidal spider Desis jiaxiangi and performed comparative mitochondrial analyses of data set comprising of Desis jiaxiangi and other 45 previously published spider mitogenome sequences, including that of Argyroneta aquatica. We found a unique transposition of trnL2 and trnN genes in Desis jiaxiangi. Our robust phylogenetic topology clearly deciphered the evolutionary relationships between Desis jiaxiangi and Argyroneta aquatica as well as other spiders. We dated the divergence of Desis jiaxiangi and Argyroneta aquatica to the late Cretaceous at ~ 98 Ma. Our selection analyses detected a positive selection signal in the nd4 gene of the aquatic branch comprising both Desis jiaxiangi and Argyroneta aquatica. Surprisingly, Pirata subpiraticus, Hypochilus thorelli, and Argyroneta aquatica each had a higher Ka/Ks value in the 13 PCGs dataset among 46 taxa with complete mitogenomes, and these three species also showed positive selection signal in the nd6 gene.ConclusionsOur finding of the unique transposition of trnL2 and trnN genes indicates that these genes may have experienced rearrangements in the history of intertidal spider evolution. The positive selection signals in the nd4 and nd6 genes might enable a better understanding of the spider metabolic adaptations in relation to different environments. Our construction of a novel mitogenome for the intertidal spider thus sheds light on the evolutionary history of spiders and their mitogenomes.

Australian processionary caterpillars, Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich‐Schäffer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), comprise cryptic species

AbstractThe bag shelter moth, Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich‐Schäffer, 1855 (Thaumetopoeinae), is abundant and widespread throughout Australia where its larvae have been reported to feed mostly on Acacia and eucalypts. The larvae, known as processionary caterpillars, build silken nests on their host plants either on the ground at the base of the plant (Acacia) or above ground on the trunk or among the canopy (Acacia and eucalypts). The caterpillars are medically important in that they shed tiny setae that can cause dermatitis and other health problems in humans and other mammals, including amnionitis and foetal loss in horses. Despite reports of behavioural, ecological and morphological differences between ground and canopy nesters, caterpillars of all nest types and hosts are currently considered to belong to one species. Here, we use DNA sequence data from the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes of caterpillars taken from different nest types in eastern Australia to determine whether there is evidence for there being more than one species. We find significant genetic divergence between caterpillars from different nest types despite occurrence in sympatry at multiple sites, indicative of a lack of gene flow and the presence of at least two reproductively isolated species. Given the range of hosts and nest locations within hosts throughout Australia, further sampling is needed to determine just how many species there are under the current concept of O. lunifer.

Silk properties and overwinter survival in gregarious butterfly larvae.

All organisms are challenged by encounters with parasites, which strongly select for efficient escape strategies in the host. The threat is especially high for gregarious species entering immobile periods, such as diapause. Larvae of the Glanville fritillary butterfly, Melitaea cinxia, spend the winter in diapause in groups of conspecifics each sheltered in a silk nest. Despite intensive monitoring of the population, we have little understanding of the ecological factors influencing larval survival over the winter in the field. We tested whether qualitative and quantitative properties of the silk nest contribute to larval survival over diapause. We used comparative proteomics, metabarcoding analyses, microscopic imaging, and in vitro experiments to compare protein composition of the silk, community composition of the silk‐associated microbiota, and silk density from both wild‐collected and laboratory‐reared families, which survived or died in the field. Although most traits assessed varied across families, only silk density was correlated with overwinter survival in the field. The silk nest spun by gregarious larvae before the winter acts as an efficient breathable physical shield that positively affects larval survival during diapause. Such benefit may explain how this costly trait is conserved across populations of this butterfly species and potentially across other silk‐spinning insect species.

Extremely low fecundity and highly female-biased sex ratio in nest-living spider mite Schizotetranychus brevisetosus (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Spider mites show various life types characterized by spinning behavior, web structure, and sociality. Individuals of the woven-nest (WN) species construct silken nests on the undersurface of host leaves, inside which they develop and reproduce. This nesting behavior may be related with the defense mechanism and life history traits of mites in the stable habitat (e.g., evergreen trees). If the WN life type affects the life-history traits, these traits may be similar within WN species. The WN species are known to be fragmentarily distributed in diverse genera, Stigmaeopsis, Schizotetranychus, Eotetranychus, and Oligonychus, and their life types are suspected to have secondarily converged. However, their life histories have not been elucidated except for several species in specific genera. To supply the information in Schizotetranychus, we investigated the demographic traits and the sex ratio of Schizotetranychus brevisetosus, which shows the WN life type and lives on the evergreen Japanese blue oak Quercus glauca. We estimated the development time of females as 22.6 ± 3.1 days (mean ± SD, n = 22) and the fecundity of fertilized females as 13.7 ± 5.9 (n = 37) at 25°C. The sex ratio of males to the total number of adults at emergence was low (0.072). The intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) was estimated as 0.060 day-1, one of the lowest ever reported for spider mites at the same temperature. The present results were similar to other WN species in that fecundity and male ratio were low.

A citywide survey of the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa spatial distribution in Orléans (France)

There is a growing recognition that urban trees provide various valuable benefits and services such as enhanced human wellbeing. However, they also have a cost in terms of public health either directly (allergies) or by harboring species representing health risk for humans. This paper focuses on such a forest insect species, the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa. Its caterpillars develop gregariously during winter in a conspicuous silk nest in coniferous hosts. When disturbed, the larvae release urticating hairs that cause human or animal serious health problems. The purpose of our survey was to (1) inventory all individual trees belonging to potential host species and estimate the density of T. pityocampa (2) assess the spatial pattern of the insect population at the city scale. We conducted an exhaustive inventory of potential coniferous host trees in five municipalities (ca. 5000ha) in the north of Orléans, France. Each tree was identified, geo-referenced and the number of moth nests it hosted was counted. A total of 9321 urban trees representing 11 coniferous taxonomic units were investigated. The distribution of T. pityocampa exhibited a marked spatial structure citywide. Geostatistics allowed to draw risk maps revealing strong patchiness. We provide the first estimate of T. pityocampa host tree preference in an urban context and found that Pinus nigra, P. pinaster and P. sylvestris were the most attacked trees. We also report numerous cases of T. pityocampa occurrence on the exotic ornamental Himalayan cedar Cedrus deodara. The management implications of our findings are two-fold: (1) risk maps constitute a useful framework for communication and public information, and can help developing control strategies; (2) some species frequently used for ornamental purposes are poor quality hosts regarding T. pityocampa and should therefore be preferred in public place usually frequented by vulnerable people (schools, nurseries, hospitals).

The urticating setae of Ochrogaster lunifer, an Australian processionary caterpillar of veterinary importance.

The bag-shelter moth, Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich-Schaffer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), is associated with a condition called equine amnionitis and fetal loss (EAFL) on horse farms in Australia. Setal fragments from O. lunifer larvae have been identified in the placentas of experimentally aborted fetuses and their dams, and in clinical abortions. The gregarious larvae build silken nests in which large numbers cohabit over spring, summer and autumn. The final instars disperse to pupation sites in the ground where they overwinter. Field-collected O. lunifer larvae, their nests and nearby soil were examined using light and electron microscopy to identify setae likely to cause EAFL and to determine where and how many were present. Microtrichia, barbed hairs and true setae were found on the exoskeletons of the larvae. True setae matching the majority of setal fragments described from equine tissue were found on third to eighth instar larvae or exuviae. The number of true setae increased with the age of the larva; eighth instars carried around 2.0-2.5 million true setae. The exuvia of the pre-pupal instar was incorporated into the pupal chamber. The major sources of setae are likely to be nests, dispersing pre-pupal larvae and their exuviae, and pupal chambers.

A preliminary study of nest structure and composition of the weaver ant Polyrhachis (Cyrtomyrma) delecta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

ABSTRACTPolyrhachis weaver ants build their nests from vegetation bound together using silk produced by their larvae. Here we provide a pilot study of the composition and the physical structure of three arboreal silk nests of Polyrhachis (Cyrtomyrma) delecta based on examination of three colonies. We found broadly similar nest architecture and size of the nests with each containing six or seven identifiable chambers, and describe the distribution of ants of different castes and life stages between them. We also note the construction of silk ‘girder’ structures, which spanned larger chambers, and we hypothesize that these provide additional strength to the internal nest structure. This study highlights the importance of more detailed investigation of the internal nest structure and composition in Polyrhachis, and other weaver ant species, which will help to develop our understanding of this specialized form of nest construction and nesting habits in a diverse group of ants.

Printed Dual Cell Arrays for Multiplexed Sensing.

We demonstrated inkjet printing of large-scale dual-type encapsulated bacterial cell arrays for prospective multiplexing sensing. The dual cell arrays were constructed on the basis of two types of bioengineered E. coli cells hosting fluorescent reporters (green-GFPa1 and red-turboRFP) capable of detecting different target chemicals. The versatility of inkjet printing allows for the fabrication of uniform multilayered confined structures composed of silk ionomers that served as nests for in-printing different cells. Furthermore, sequential encapsulation of "red" and "green" cells in microscopic silk nest arrays with the preservation of their function allowed for facile confinement of cells into microscopic silk nests, where cells retained dual red-green response to mixed analyte environment. Whole-cell dual arrays immobilized in microscopic biocompatible silk matrices were readily activated after prolonged storage (up to 3 months, ambient conditions), showing red-green pattern and demonstrating an effective prototype of robust and long-living multiplexed biosensors for field applications.

Evolutionary transitions of complex labile traits: Silk weaving and arboreal nesting in Polyrhachis ants

Understanding the maintenance and evolution of complex group behavioural systems has broad significance to our understanding of social evolution, yet we have little insight into how these systems have evolved. Nest-weaving, a rare group behaviour considered a pinnacle of cooperative action in social insects, involves the coordination of workers and larvae by incorporating larval silk into the nest structure. To investigate the evolution of this complex behaviour in the ant genus Polyrhachis, we used comparative analysis and an inferred molecular phylogeny based on three mitochondrial genes COI, COII and CytB, and three nuclear genes EF1 a-F2, Wg and Tf. Our results showed that arboreality and nest-weaving are closely associated, but in contrast to the previous hypotheses, represent the ancestral state in the monophyletic genus. Nest-weaving within the genus, moreover, is remarkably labile. Arboreality and nest-weaving have been lost and partially regained on at least two occasions: two non-weaving subterranean species (sister taxa likely reflecting a single evolutionary event) have reverted to arboreal nesting habits without regaining the use of silk nests, while a third subterranean species has transitioned to nesting in silk nests on the sides of rocks, obtaining silk from spiders and not their own larvae. The loss of larval cocoons, which is correlated with the most complex form of nest-weaving behavior as typified in Oecophylla, has occurred independently on at least two occasions within Polyrhachis. The repeated loss of nest-weaving behaviour and its partial regaining within the genus provides the first example of a complex group-level trait that did not arise through behavioural progression from simple to complex states. The evolution and loss of complex group-level traits may be more evolutionarily labile than previously appreciated.

Inkjet Printing of Silk Nest Arrays for Cell Hosting

An inkjet printing approach is presented for the facile fabrication of microscopic arrays of biocompatible silk "nests" capable of hosting live cells for prospective biosensors. The patterning of silk fibroin nests were constructed by the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of silk polyelectrolytes chemically modified with poly-(l-lysine) and poly-(l-glutamic acid) side chains. The inkjet-printed silk circular regions with a characteristic "nest" shape had diameters of 70-100 μm and a thickness several hundred nanometers were stabilized by ionic pairing and by the formation of the silk II crystalline secondary structure. These "locked-in" silk nests remained anchored to the substrate during incubation in cell growth media to provide a biotemplated platform for printing-in, immobilization, encapsulation and growth of cells. The process of inkjet-assisted printing is versatile and can be applied on any type of substrate, including rigid and flexible, with scalability and facile formation.

Host selection by the pine processionary moth enhances larval performance: An experiment

The development of a phytophagous insect depends on the nutritional characteristics of plants on which it feeds. Offspring from different females, however, may vary in their ability to develop in different host species and therefore females should place their eggs on host plants that result in the highest performance for the insect offspring. Causes underlying the predicted relationships between host selection and offspring performance may be: (1) a genetic association between larval ability to exploit particular hosts and the female insect's host preference; and (2) phenotypic plasticity of larvae that may be due to (a) maternal effects (e.g. differential investment in eggs) or (b) diet. In this work, we analyse the performance (i.e. hatching success and larval size and mortality) of the pine processionary (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) caterpillar developing in Aleppo (Pinus halepensis) or maritime (Pinus pinaster) pines. Larvae of this moth species do not move from the individual pine selected by the mother for oviposition. By means of cross-fostering experiments of eggs batches and silk nests of larvae between these two pine species, we explored whether phenotypic plasticity of offspring traits or genetic correlations between mother and offspring traits account for variation in developmental characteristics of caterpillars. Our results showed that females preferentially selected Aleppo pine for oviposition. Moreover, the offspring had the highest probability of survival and reached a larger body size in this pine species independently of whether or not batches were experimentally cross-fostered. Notably, the interaction between identity of donor and receiver pine species of larvae nests explained a significant proportion of variance of larval size and mortality, suggesting a role of diet-induced phenotypic plasticity of the hatchlings. These results suggest that both female selection of the more appropriate pine species and phenotypic plasticity of larva explain the performance of pine processionary caterpillars.

Assessing Species Distribution Using Google Street View: A Pilot Study with the Pine Processionary Moth

Mapping species spatial distribution using spatial inference and prediction requires a lot of data. Occurrence data are generally not easily available from the literature and are very time-consuming to collect in the field. For that reason, we designed a survey to explore to which extent large-scale databases such as Google maps and Google street view could be used to derive valid occurrence data. We worked with the Pine Processionary Moth (PPM) Thaumetopoea pityocampa because the larvae of that moth build silk nests that are easily visible. The presence of the species at one location can therefore be inferred from visual records derived from the panoramic views available from Google street view. We designed a standardized procedure allowing evaluating the presence of the PPM on a sampling grid covering the landscape under study. The outputs were compared to field data. We investigated two landscapes using grids of different extent and mesh size. Data derived from Google street view were highly similar to field data in the large-scale analysis based on a square grid with a mesh of 16 km (96% of matching records). Using a 2 km mesh size led to a strong divergence between field and Google-derived data (46% of matching records). We conclude that Google database might provide useful occurrence data for mapping the distribution of species which presence can be visually evaluated such as the PPM. However, the accuracy of the output strongly depends on the spatial scales considered and on the sampling grid used. Other factors such as the coverage of Google street view network with regards to sampling grid size and the spatial distribution of host trees with regards to road network may also be determinant.

Thermal properties of the tent of early instar colonies of the eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americanum (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae)

The extent to which the small tents of the early instars of Malacosoma americanum warmed when irradiated by sunlight was investigated by continuous electronic monitoring of field colonies for 137 colony-days. Tent temperatures exceeded the threshold for larval growth of 15°C on 88–96% of the study days, exceeding in degree-minutes the ambient excess-over-threshold by a factor of approximately five. In still air, tents constructed by third instar caterpillars achieved greater temperature excesses over ambient than did a model of a tightly sealed glass house, but smaller tents and tents exposed to simulated wind did not perform as well. Tents of M. americanum warmed more rapidly and to a high temperature than silk nests of markedly different design constructed by other species.

Busy Builders (review)

Reviewed by: Busy Builders Elizabeth Bush Munro, Roxie . Busy Builders; written and illus. by Roxie Munro. Cavendish, 2012. 40p. Trade ed. ISBN 978-0-7614-6105-0 $17.99 E-book ed. ISBN 978-0-7614-6106-7 $17.99 Ad Gr. 2-4. Eight insects and one arachnid are showcased here for their interesting approaches to domestic architecture. The honeybee community in its waxen hive will be most familiar, but the red harvester ants in their underground burrows, organ-pipe mud daubers in their tubes, pine processionary caterpillars in their solar-heated silk nests, and paper hornet hives of wood slivers and spit are equally intriguing. Munro's chosen format sends a perplexing mixed message regarding the intended audience, though. Each creature is introduced in a detailed, colored-ink image that extends across an oversized double spread with a simple header: "This is a Honeybee. Where does it live?" The subsequent spread offers a close-up (also oversized) that seems to carry over the visual appeal to a preschool/primary-aged crowd. The paragraph of accompanying text, however, is quite a bit more sophisticated in both concepts and vocabulary, evident in text such as "Patrol ants are stationed at the entrance, while other ants go out to forage for food. One harvester ant nest reportedly extended fifteen feet (4.6 m) below the ground and contained 436 chambers." Newly independent readers who have already developed an interest in critters that buzz, crawl, and creep may have sufficient background to handle the terminology with minimal assistance, but younger listeners may need definitions and explanations along the way from an adult reader. A brief glossary and an even briefer list of further resources are included. Copyright © 2012 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois