Significant Reading Difficulties Research Articles

An Extensive Reading Intervention for Emergent Bilingual Students With Significant Reading Difficulties in Middle School

This study evaluated the effects of a reading intervention for emergent bilingual students with significant reading difficulties in Grades 6 and 7 within a multisite randomized controlled trial. Emergent bilinguals were randomized to a researcher-provided intervention ( n = 171) or business-as-usual comparison condition ( n = 169). Results on a measure of word reading indicated significant differences favoring treatment after Year 1; however, there were no significant differences between groups on standardized measures of reading comprehension. Initial English vocabulary knowledge moderated reading comprehension scores at the beginning of the second year of intervention, indicating that students’ response to instruction varied as a function of their initial English language proficiency. The discussion focuses on interpreting these findings with an emphasis on improving the effectiveness of interventions for secondary grade emergent bilinguals with significant reading difficulties.

Self‐Regulation and Reading Comprehension: Integrating and Aligning to Improve Reading Outcomes

AbstractTwo potential pathways for improving reading outcomes for students with reading disabilities are presented: (a) systematically integrating self‐regulation instructional practices within reading interventions and (b) aligning small‐group reading intervention with core reading instruction to reduce the pressure on the executive system. Two separate studies conducted with fourth grade students with significant reading difficulties, one related to integrating self‐regulation within a reading intervention and one related to aligning core instruction and reading intervention, are presented. Similar to many past high‐quality studies conducted with older students with reading disabilities, results revealed no statistically significant differences on commercially developed measures of reading comprehension. However, results on standardized measures of word reading and text reading fluency and researcher‐developed measures of vocabulary and text comprehension underscore the promise of these approaches and support the notion that considering self‐regulation in the context of reading instruction may be a productive conduit for supporting the needs of students with significant reading difficulties.

Effects of a Digital Fluency-Based Reading Program for Students with Significant Reading Difficulties

Fluency is one of the critical factors necessary for proficient reading due to its connection with reading comprehension yet many students with reading difficulties struggle to become efficient readers of connected text. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of a digital reading fluency program that incorporates evidence-based practices such as repeated reading, immediate error correction, modeling, and graphing of performance to improve the oral reading fluency of four elementary students with significant reading difficulties. Using a single-case, multiple probe across participants design, results indicated the Great Leaps Digital Reading Program was an effective intervention for increasing the oral reading fluency of both within-program and grade-level reading passages. Implications of results and future research are discussed.

Improving Literacy for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: An Innovative Approach

Most students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) have significant reading difficulties, but educators have few in-service professional learning opportunities geared to reading instruction for these students. The Integrated Literacy Study Group was developed as an online professional development program to prepare elementary teachers to meet the literacy needs of students with or at risk of EBD. In this study, the authors use a within-subjects design to evaluate the feasibility of the 10-week digital program with 13 elementary teachers. From pretest to posttest, teachers made statistically and educationally significant gains in knowledge of evidence-based social and emotional learning and reading strategies for students with EBD, as well as significant improvements in general teacher self-efficacy, reading self-efficacy, and social and emotional self-efficacy. Pretest-to-posttest change in teacher burnout and classroom management was educationally significant, but statistically nonsignificant. Most teachers perceived the program content as relevant to their needs and those of their students.

RALF: an adaptive reinforcement learning framework for teaching dyslexic students.

Dyslexia is a learning disorder in which individuals have significant reading difficulties. Previous studies found that using machine learning techniques in content supplements is vital in adapting the course concepts to the learners' educational level. However, to the best of our knowledge, no research objectively applied machine learning methods to adaptive content generation. This study introduces an adaptive reinforcement learning framework known as RALF through Cellular Learning Automata (CLA) to generate content automatically for students with dyslexia. At first, RALF generates online alphabet models as a simplified font. CLA structure learns each rule of character generation through the reinforcement learning cycle asynchronously. Second, Persian words are generated algorithmically. This process also considers each character's state to decide the alphabet cursiveness and the cells' response to the environment. Finally, RALF can generate long texts and sentences using the embedded word-formation algorithm. The spaces between words are proceeds through the CLA neighboring states. Besides, RALF provides word pronunciation and several exams and games to improve the learning performance of people with dyslexia. The proposed reinforcement learning tool enhances students' learning rate with dyslexia by almost 27% compared to the face-to-face approach. The findings of this research show the applicability of this approach in dyslexia treatment during Lockdown of COVID-19.

The profile of reading and cognitive skills of children with a history of specific developmental language disorder

The present study aimed to investigate the profile of reading and cognitive skills of primary school' students with a history of specific developmental language disorder during preschool years. The sample comprised 247 children referred for assessment of their reading difficulties to the University Child Psychiatry Department, at the "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece. The study was retrospective utilizing medical records from where the following information was drawn: demographic data, presence of a diagnosis of a specific developmental language disorder, results of Reading Test-A and WISC-III. Among the 247 children with normal intelligence IQ>80 (mean age: 10.5 years, 61.5% boys) included in the study, 226 (92.5%) were identified as having significant reading difficulties in at least one of the four subtests of the Reading-A Test (≤ 30 percentile); 72% performed poorly in reading fluency, 67.1% in decoding familiar and pseudowords, 52.8% in reading comprehension and 49.8% in morphosyntax subtest. When comparing children with severe reading difficulties (≤ 10 percentile on the Reading Test A) with a history of specific developmental language disorder (N=110) and no relevant history (N=116), the findings indicated that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of specific language disorder had severe difficulty in morphosyntax (χ2=21.94, p<0.001) and reading comprehension subtests (χ2=8.89, p <0,001) than those with no history. In terms of the cognitive profile of children with severe reading difficulties, the results showed that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of developmental language disorder than those with no history had low performance (<7TB) on all WISC-III subtests, however the difference between the two groups was found to be statistically significant on three subtests: "Vocabulary" (p=0.014), Arithmetic (p=0.006), and "Information" (p=0.005). Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that lower levels of the verbal IQ (β=-0.121, p=0.042) and positive history of developmental language disorder during preschool years (β=0.537, p<0.001) were independently related to the severity of reading disability. In conclusion, the findings of the present study highlight the importance of early detection of language deficits during the preschool years and timely speech and language therapy intervention.

Examining the Reading and Cognitive Profiles of Students With Significant Reading Comprehension Difficulties.

This study investigated the word reading and listening comprehension difficulties of fourth-grade students with significant reading comprehension deficits and the cognitive difficulties that underlie these weaknesses. Latent profile analysis was used to classify a sample of fourth-grade students (n = 446) who scored below the 16th percentile on a measure of reading comprehension into subgroups based on their performance in word reading (WR) and listening comprehension (LC). Three latent profiles emerged: (a) moderate deficits in both WR and LC of similar severity (91%), (b) severe deficit in WR paired with moderate LC deficit (5%), and (c) severe deficit in LC with moderate WR difficulties (4%). Analyses examining the associations between cognitive attributes and group membership indicated students with lower performance on cognitive predictors were more likely to be in a severe subgroup. Implications for educators targeting improved reading performance for upper elementary students with significant reading difficulties were discussed.

Self‐Determination to Increase Oral Reading Fluency Performance: Pilot and Replication Single‐Case Design Studies

AbstractWe report findings from multiple baseline design studies examining the effects of a program (“Data Mountain”) to improve the oral reading fluency (ORF) performance of 12 third‐grade students with significant reading difficulties. The Data Mountain program guided students through self‐monitoring, goal setting, and motivation training related to their reading performance. In the pilot study, these components were introduced across two experimental phases (self‐monitoring and goal setting, followed by motivation training) to observe potential additive effects. In the replication study, the full Data Mountain program was introduced in one experimental phase. Between‐case standardized mean difference effect sizes yielded moderate effects across studies (ES = 0.53, 0.63). Visual analyses of data revealed that students demonstrated increased levels of words read correctly per minute (wpm). In the pilot study, students’ fluency increased to an average of 22 wpm in the self‐monitoring and goal‐setting phase, and to a further 9 wpm in the motivation training phase. In the replication study, students increased an average of 18 wpm with the Data Mountain program. These results provide evidence to suggest that self‐determination and motivation training have the potential to support the ORF performance of students with significant reading difficulties in the elementary grades.

Designing an Intervention in Reading and Self-Regulation for Students With Significant Reading Difficulties, Including Dyslexia

The purpose of this feasibility study was to inform the development of an intervention to support reading and self-regulation for students with significant reading difficulties and disabilities (RDs), including dyslexia. Participants were 21 special educators, dyslexia specialists, and reading interventionists and 48 students in Grades 2 to 4. Student outcomes were compared using a quasi-experimental design; some teachers provided the research intervention (Idea Detectives [ID] group), whereas others provided the reading interventions typically offered in their schools (business-as-usual [BAU] group). Nearly 90% of BAU students received alternate evidence-based interventions. Results showed that student outcomes did not differ between the ID and BAU groups. Observational data indicated that revisions were needed to improve the intervention’s feasibility, and qualitative teacher data identified barriers to consistent implementation, as well as strengths and shortcomings of the intervention. Teacher data suggested strong support for the inclusion of self-regulation instruction with reading intervention. This study illustrates the importance of teacher–researcher collaborations for the development of instructional interventions.

How Initial Word Reading and Language Skills Affect Reading Comprehension Outcomes for Students With Reading Difficulties.

This study examined how differences in listening comprehension and word reading at the beginning of the school year influence changes in reading comprehension for English learners (ELs) with significant reading difficulties compared to non-ELs with significant reading difficulties. The study investigated heterogeneity in response to instruction among 400 struggling readers in fourth grade (n = 183 for non-EL; n = 217 for EL) who received an intensive reading intervention. At pretest, word reading, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension were measured, and at posttest, reading comprehension was measured again. Results from moderated multiple regression analyses showed a significant three-way interaction such that reading comprehension at posttest was higher for ELs than non-ELs with similar levels of low word reading but relatively higher levels of listening comprehension. However, non-ELs outperformed ELs with similar levels of relatively high word reading and average to high listening comprehension. The findings suggest that pre-intervention skill profiles may need to be interpreted differently for ELs and non-ELs with significant reading difficulties in relation to language and literacy outcomes.

Evaluating contextually adapted reading interventions with third-grade, Costa Rican students experiencing significant reading difficulties

Scholarship in school psychology has continued to document the need and importance of contextually relevant intervention and prevention research, but this type of research remains relatively scarce. Also problematic, this type of research is even more limited in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) compared to high-income countries. This situation within school psychology scholarship not only has negative implications for research and practice, it also limits internationalization within the discipline. The geographical context for the present study was in Costa Rica, currently a Latin American LMIC. Given the global importance of literacy, this article describes an experimental evaluation comparing two time- and resource-efficient reading interventions that differed only by instructional grouping: A one-on-one intervention, and an even more resource-efficient small-group intervention. Participants included third-graders experiencing significant reading difficulties. Analyses showed that all students benefitted from intervention, but some students responded somewhat more favorably to one intervention versus the other. Limitations, implications, and future research directions are discussed, particularly within the context of international school psychology and how professionals in the discipline can benefit from more intervention research in otherwise underrepresented global regions.

Efficacy of a Word- and Text-Based Intervention for Students With Significant Reading Difficulties

We examine the efficacy of an intervention to improve word reading and reading comprehension in fourth- and fifth-grade students with significant reading problems. Using a randomized control trial design, we compare the fourth- and fifth-grade reading outcomes of students with severe reading difficulties who were provided a researcher-developed treatment with reading outcomes of students in a business-as-usual (BAU) comparison condition. A total of 280 fourth- and fifth-grade students were randomly assigned within school in a 1:1 ratio to either the BAU comparison condition (n = 139) or the treatment condition (n = 141). Treatment students were provided small-group tutoring for 30 to 45 minutes for an average of 68 lessons (mean hours of instruction = 44.4, SD = 11.2). Treatment students performed statistically significantly higher than BAU students on a word reading measure (effect size [ES] = 0. 58) and a measure of reading fluency (ES = 0.46). Though not statistically significant, effect sizes for students in the treatment condition were consistently higher than BAU students for decoding measures (ES = 0.06, 0.08), and mixed for comprehension (ES = -0.02, 0.14).

The Effects of One versus Two Years of Intensive Reading Intervention Implemented with Late Elementary Struggling Readers.

We examined the effectiveness of a researcher-provided reading intervention with 484 fourth graders with significant reading difficulties. Students were randomly assigned to one year of intervention, two years of intervention, or a business-as-usual comparison condition (BAU). Students assigned to two years of intervention demonstrated significantly greater gains in reading fluency compared to students who received one year of intervention and the BAU group. Students in both the one- and two-year groups demonstrated similar and significantly larger gains in word reading in comparison to the BAU group. There were no statistically significant differences between the three groups on standardized measures of reading comprehension. We discuss these results in the context of research with late elementary and secondary students targeting reading comprehension.

Effects From a Randomized Control Trial Comparing Researcher and School-Implemented Treatments With Fourth Graders With Significant Reading Difficulties

ABSTRACTThis study examined the effectiveness of a researcher-provided intervention with fourth graders with significant reading difficulties. The intervention emphasized multisyllable word reading, fluent reading of high-frequency words and phrases, vocabulary, and comprehension. To identify the participants, 1,695 fourth-grade students were screened using the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, and those whose standard scores were 85 or lower were included in the study (N = 483). Participants were randomly assigned (2:1) to receive either researcher-provided intervention (n = 323) or intervention provided by school personnel (business as usual, BAU) (n = 161). Findings revealed no statistically significant differences between students in the researcher-provided intervention and BAU groups. Using effect sizes as an indicator of impact, students in the researcher-implemented treatment generally outperformed students in the school-implemented treatment (BAU). Examining growth in standard scores, both groups made significant gains in reading outcomes with standard score growth from pretest to posttest of 3 standard score points on decoding, 5 on fluency, and 2.0 to 7 standard score points on reading comprehension measures.

Supporting children with reading difficulties within the New Zealand English curriculum

The longer‐term effectiveness of phonological awareness intervention for children with reading difficulty is likely to be influenced by the quality of general classroom instruction. This descriptive project used a case study design to follow the literacy progress of three children aged six and seven years with speech and language impairment after responding strongly to an intensive phonological awareness intervention. The study analysed the opportunities provided in the children's general classroom programme within the New Zealand English curriculum for ongoing facilitation of phonological awareness skills. Findings indicated that the classroom environment provided multiple opportunities for implicit teaching of phonological awareness skills which may have contributed to the children's ability to maintain skills taught within the intervention. Children with significant reading difficulties underpinned by poor phonological awareness are likely to require ongoing access to intensive intervention in addition to quality classroom instruction.

Tier 3 Interventions for Students With Significant Reading Problems

This article provides an overview of research on intensive reading interventions to inform Tier 3 instruction for students with reading disabilities. Tier 3 interventions are typically provided to those students who demonstrate inadequate progress after receiving less intensive Tier 2 interventions. A conceptual overview of Tier 3 interventions within a Response to Intervention model is provided, along with a review of research on effectiveness of instructional practices for students with significant reading difficulties.

Why intensive interventions are necessary for students with severe reading difficulties

This article reviews research related to intensive interventions within a Response to Intervention framework. We review the research from studies that provided different levels of intensity of intervention with the goal of establishing a case that movement through less intensive tiers of intervention may not be an effective and responsible approach to addressing the reading difficulties of some students, particularly those with significant reading difficulties or disabilities.

Construct Validity of Reading Measures in Adults With Significant Reading Difficulties

The four studies of adult literacy in this special issue of the Journal of Learning Disabilities address measurement issues in adult populations and the relation (by comparison) of similar studies of childhood literacy. Despite differences in selection criteria, tests, and research questions, there is some convergence across studies, especially on construct validity issues. It is reassuring to see evidence of construct invariance across children and adults. The examples of lack of convergence relative to childhood literacy studies are instructive, and investigators should be careful not to extrapolate directly from child to adult models.

University-School Collaboration for the Implementation of a Tier III Reading Program for Elementary School Students

In the wake of the RTI movement, much has been discussed in terms of how to provide first- and second-tier interventions, but educators may need additional resources for service delivery within the third tier. One application of a Tier III intervention within a Midwest university's school psychology program partnership with a local school district is discussed. Details on how to implement Tier III interventions for students with significant reading difficulties are provided. Specifically, a description of one service delivery model, the resources used to implement the Tier III interventions, and assessment of student progress are discussed. Further, a discussion on the maintenance of the interventions and sustainability of the project over time is included.

Understanding comorbidity: A twin study of reading disability and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder

A community sample of twins in which at least one member of each pair exhibited significant reading difficulties (99 monozygotic and 80 dizygotic pairs) or symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; 83 monozygotic and 78 dizygotic pairs) was used to test the etiology of comorbidity between reading disability (RD) and ADHD. Univariate analyses revealed moderate to high heritability for all measures of reading difficulty and ADHD. Subsequent bivariate analyses indicated that the relation between reading difficulties and inattention symptoms is primarily attributable to common genetic influences, whereas bivariate heritability estimates were not significant for hyperactivity-impulsivity and any of the reading measures. Reading difficulties and ADHD symptoms were more highly heritable if the proband met criteria for both disorders versus RD or ADHD alone, suggesting that future molecular genetic analyses of comorbid RD + ADHD may facilitate the identification of susceptibility genes for RD, ADHD, and their comorbidity.