Significant Predictors Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Research Articles

Predicting PTSD among labour ward staff: The role of burnout, intent to leave, and emotional support

Abstract Background Healthcare professionals in delivery rooms frequently encounter stressful situations. Following an examination of how midwives coped and functioned during the unfamiliar and chaotic period of the Covid-19 pandemic, it is crucial to understand their challenges and the support they receive to enhance well-being and patient care. This study aimed to examine the relationship between burnout, intentions to leave, and PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) symptoms among healthcare professionals, and to identify predictors of PTSD. Methods We employed a mixed-methods design, consisting of a survey of 196 midwives and gynecologists assessing burnout, intentions to leave, exposure to negative work experiences, and PTSD. Additionally, we conducted 15 semi-structured interviews and 13 interviews with labour ward head nurses. Results Most participants experienced difficult events in the delivery room or multiple such events, reporting insufficient emotional support. The main themes identified were stress, fear, anxiety, and frustration. Burnout and a lack of emotional support were significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, with participants highlighting the need for more support to manage complex situations. Discussion Addressing burnout through prevention and intervention programs is essential. Emotional support plays a crucial role in mitigating PTSD symptoms, enhancing resilience and well-being among midwives and gynecologists. Implications for Nursing Management: Understanding the psychological impact of stressful situations on healthcare professionals is crucial for guiding policies and interventions aimed at maintaining staff psychological well-being. Midwives’ managers can leverage this research to identify actions that improve staff resilience and cohesion during crises. Strengthening the resilience of health teams is pivotal in providing optimal health services. Key messages • Burnout and insufficient emotional support are key predictors of PTSD among healthcare workers in labour wards. • Enhancing support and resilience for midwives and gynecologists is crucial for their well-being and patient care.

“It’s a Right Pain in the Pelvis!”: Post-Traumatic Stress and Post-Traumatic Growth in a Sample of Females Experiencing Chronic Pelvic Pain

Chronic pelvic pain affects 38 per 1,000 women yearly (Daniels & Khan, 2010; Zondervan et al., 1999), accompanied by various psychological sequelae. Positive psychology may offer new approaches to pelvic pain that complement existing interventions; these include post-traumatic growth (PTG), optimism, resilience, and models of recovery. In a sample of 132 females (aged 16 to 45+), cross-sectional research revealed that participants with pelvic pain of unknown cause had the highest levels of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. A regression analysis revealed that intrusive rumination, avoidant coping, and resilience were significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, and resilience and social support were predictors of PTG. Understanding the elements of positive psychology could help create positive psychology interventions focusing on chronic pelvic pain’s impact on mental health.

Associations among posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, life satisfaction, and well-being comparisons: A longitudinal investigation.

Many individuals who encounter potentially traumatic events go on to develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research suggests that survivors of traumatic events frequently compare their current well-being to different standards; yet, knowledge regarding the role of comparative thinking in well-being is limited to a few cross-sectional studies. We therefore examined the temporal associations among aversive well-being comparisons (i.e., comparisons threatening self-motives), PTSD symptoms, and life satisfaction in individuals exposed to traumatic events. Participants (N = 518) with a trauma history completed measures of PTSD symptoms and life satisfaction, as well as the Comparison Standards Scale for Well-being (CSS-W), at assessment points 3 months apart. The CSS-W assesses the frequency, perceived discrepancy, and affective impact of aversive social, temporal, counterfactual, and criteria-based comparisons related to well-being. All participants reported having engaged in aversive well-being comparisons during the last 3 weeks. Comparison frequency emerged as a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms, β = .24, beyond baseline PTSD symptom severity. Life satisfaction contributed unique variance to the comparison process by predicting comparison frequency, β = -.18; discrepancy, β = -.24; and affective impact, β = .20. The findings suggest that frequent aversive comparisons may lead to a persistent focus on negative aspects of well-being, thereby exacerbating PTSD symptoms, and further indicate that comparison frequency, discrepancy, and affective impact are significantly influenced by life satisfaction. Taken together, the findings support the need for a thorough examination of the role of comparative thinking in clinical populations, which may ultimately help improve clinical care.

Anxiety sensitivity, finding the body, and posttraumatic stress disorder in suicide-bereaved treatment-seeking adults.

Those bereaved by suicide are at greater risk of prolonged distress compared to those bereaved by other modes of death. Trauma- and emotion-related factors may increase this vulnerability. Finding the body of the deceased may intensify postsuicide distress. Anxiety sensitivity, fear of one's anxiety-related symptoms, has been positively associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in other trauma populations but has not been studied in the suicide bereaved. This study examined the relationships among finding the body, anxiety sensitivity, and PTSD in a treatment-seeking, suicide-bereaved sample (N = 50). Pretreatment baseline data on demographics, the Anxiety Sensitivity Index, and the PTSD Checklist were analyzed. Younger age (r = -.31, p = .03), being a person of color (r = -.32, p = .02), and fewer days since the loss (r = -.30, p = .03) were associated with greater PTSD. Controlling for age, race, and days since the loss, PTSD was unrelated to finding the body, F(1, 45) = 0.01, p = .92, but was positively associated with anxiety sensitivity (pr = .32, p = .03). In simultaneous regression analyses, age, race, days since the loss, finding the body, and anxiety sensitivity accounted for 33% of the variance in PTSD, F(2, 44) = 4.29, p = .003; anxiety sensitivity was the only significant predictor of PTSD symptoms (β = .36, t = 2.35, p = .02). Anxiety sensitivity has important implications for the development and maintenance of PTSD in the suicide bereaved and should be assessed and targeted in suicide postvention. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Trauma load and cognitive failures among firefighters: The role of post-traumatic stress disorder and personal and job characteristics

IntroductionFirefighters repeatedly encounter traumatic and stressful events while on duty, leading to mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (PTSS). This disorder can affect the rate of cognitive failures (CFs) and thus increase the probability of human error, unsafe behaviors, and accidents. The present study was conducted to investigate the direct and indirect effects of trauma load on the rate of CFs in firefighters and to investigate the mediation effect of PTSS and the moderation effect of resilience, neuroticism, and job characteristics. MethodsThe study was performed by cross-sectional design in 2020 on all operational firefighters from Hamadan, Iran. A total number of 240 firefighters made up the sample size of our study. Data were collected using validated questionnaires during nine months. Hypothesis testing and data analysis were performed using structural equation modeling (by Amos software version 24) and hierarchical regression (by the 23rd version of SPSS software). ResultsPTSS fully mediated the relationship between trauma load and CFs. Trauma load, resilience, and neuroticism were significant predictors of PTSS (p<0.05). Resilience and neuroticism had no moderation effect on the relationship between trauma load and PTSS (p>0.05). PTSS showed a direct relationship with CFs (p<0.001). Among job characteristics, only job control moderated the relationship between PTSS and CFs (p<0.05). Conclusiontrauma load can increase the rate of CFs by causing PTSS in firefighters. High job control at work can weaken the relationship between PTSS and CFs.

Social interactions in trauma disclosure: A multi-informant and multiconstruct investigation.

Research has established that social factors are integral to trauma recovery. Yet, there is relatively little data on the association between social interactions from different supports and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Moreover, few studies have measured these factors from multiple informants. This paper examined social interactions from different sources (i.e., negative and positive reactions from a chosen close other [CO], family/friends, and general non-COs) and their association with PTSD symptoms using multi-informant reports of the social constructs (i.e., from the individual exposed to trauma [TI] and their CO). Participants (N = 104 dyads) were recruited from an urban center within 6 months of the TIs' exposure to a traumatic event. TIs were assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. TI self-report, t(97) = 2.58, p = .012, and CO collateral report of disapproval from family/friends, t(97) = 2.14, p = .035, and TI self-report of general disapproval, t(97) = 4.91, p < .001, emerged as significant predictors of PTSD symptoms when compared with other social constructs. Interventions that target family members' and friends' reactions to trauma survivors and societal discourse around trauma and reactions to trauma survivors are recommended. Clinical interventions that buffer against TIs' experiences of disapproval and guide COs on the provision of supportive responses are discussed.

Burnout and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among medical staff two years after the COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan, China: Social support and resilience as mediators

BackgroundEvidence on the relationship between burnout and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is limited. We aimed to evaluate the association between burnout and PTSD symptoms among medical staff two years after the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in Wuhan, China, and explore the mediating roles of social support and psychological resilience. MethodsA multicenter survey was conducted online from January to March 2022 among healthcare professionals from six general hospitals. Hierarchical linear regression was used to detect the predictors of PTSD symptoms. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the pathways from burnout to PTSD symptoms. ResultsHierarchical linear regression showed that burnout, social support, and psychological resilience were significant predictors of PTSD symptoms among medical staff. In the SEM, the standardized total effect of burnout on PTSD symptoms was 0.336(bias-corrected 95 % confidence interval [0.303, 0.367], P < 0.001). Social support and psychological resilience partially mediated the relationship between burnout and PTSD symptoms (indirect effects accounted for 22.3 % of the total effect). LimitationsOwing to the cross-sectional design, only clues to causal explanations can be provided. ConclusionsBurnout has significant direct and indirect effects on PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, social support and psychological resilience might be effective ways to reduce the impact of burnout on PTSD symptoms in medical staff after a major public health outbreak.

Childhood psychological maltreatment, sense of self, and PTSD symptoms in emerging adulthood

AbstractThis study outlines the relationships among childhood psychological maltreatment (CPM), an understudied form of maltreatment, sense of self (SOS), a developmental construct negatively impacted by trauma, and post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in emerging adults. Results from regression analysis on a sample of emerging adults (N = 358) indicated CPM to be the greatest predictor of a weaker SOS, even when considered alongside other types of child maltreatment. Among those exposed to CPM, SOS was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms, explaining 34.1% of the variance in the outcome. Counseling interventions that focus on SOS during emerging adulthood are recommended as one important consideration for survivors of CPM who experience PTSD symptoms. Specific counseling practice and research implications are included.

Military sexual trauma: Exploring the moderating role of restrictive emotionality among male veterans.

Objective: Military Sexual Trauma (MST) has been found to be positively associated with mental health outcomes, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depressive symptoms, symptoms of anxiety, and insomnia severity (Jenkins et al., 2015; O'Brien & Sher, 2013). Male survivors of MST face unique challenges, including concerns associated with hypermasculinity (e.g., restrictive emotionality [RE]). Men with high RE (difficulty expressing emotions) report more negative mental health outcomes compared to men with low RE (Good et al., 1995). The present study investigated whether RE moderated the relationship between MST and negative mental health outcomes, while controlling for combat exposure (CE) and age to further assess confounding variables. Method: One hundred thirty-four adult male veterans in behavioral health treatment at a large VA medical center in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States were recruited. Participants provided self-reported data on MST and symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and insomnia, as well as their endorsement of restrictive emotionality. PROCESS v3.3 (Hayes, 2017) regression analytic method was used to test main and interaction effects. Results: MST was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms and insomnia severity-but not depressive symptoms or symptoms of anxiety. RE also moderated the relationship between MST and PTSD symptoms, depressive symptoms, and insomnia, after controlling for CE and age. Conclusion: These findings suggest that restricting emotions has a negative influence on men's mental health functioning. Therefore, assessing male veterans' experiences of expressing their emotions within the context of masculinity and their military training will likely have implications on trauma processing and treatment outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Rejection sensitivity and vulnerable attachment: associations with social support and PTSD symptoms in trauma survivors

ABSTRACT Background Although social support has been consistently associated with recovery from psychological trauma and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), individual differences in seeking or benefitting from social support in trauma survivors are not well understood. Factors associated with negative internal working models of self and others, emotion dysregulation, and interrupted bonds with an individual’s social support groups such as vulnerable attachment and rejection sensitivity could contribute to lower experienced social support and higher levels of PTSD. Objective The objective of this study was to test a theoretically informed model and investigate how psychosocial variables such as vulnerable attachment styles, rejection sensitivity, and social support are associated with PTSD. Method Using a cross-sectional survey and path analyses in 141 survivors of trauma (aged 18–69, M = 25.20), the relationship between vulnerable attachment style, rejection sensitivity, and PTSD were investigated. Results Higher vulnerable attachment, rejection sensitivity, and lower social support were found to be significant predictors of PTSD symptoms (f 2 = 0.75). The relationships from vulnerable attachment to PTSD were mediated by rejection sensitivity and perceived social support. The results supported and extend theoretical models of PTSD that posit a role for predisposing factors in the development and maintenance of the disorder. Conclusion The findings suggest a potential benefit of identifying vulnerable groups that could benefit from a refinement of existing PTSD interventions by targeting the maladaptive effects of vulnerable attachment and rejection sensitivity, thus allowing the individual to draw effectively on social support networks.

Mechanisms of Change in Trauma-Focused Treatment for PTSD: The Role of Rumination

ObjectiveCognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been well established in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate its underlying mechanisms of change. Dysfunctional cognitive content, i.e. excessively negative appraisals of the trauma or its consequences, has been shown to predict changes in PTSD symptoms over the course of treatment. However, the role of change in cognitive processes, such as trauma-related rumination, needs to be addressed. The present study investigates whether changes in rumination intensity precede and predict changes in symptom severity. We also explored the extent to which symptom severity predicts rumination. MethodAs part of a naturalistic effectiveness study evaluating CBT for PTSD in routine clinical care, eighty-eight patients with PTSD completed weekly measures of rumination and symptom severity. Lagged associations between rumination and symptoms in the following week were examined using linear mixed models. ResultsOver the course of therapy, both ruminative thinking and PTSD symptoms decreased. Rumination was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms in the following week, although this effect was at least partly explained by the time factor (e.g., natural recovery or inseparable treatment effects). Symptom severity predicted ruminative thinking in the following week even with time as an additional predictor. ConclusionsThe present study provides preliminary evidence that rumination in PTSD is reduced by CBT for PTSD but does not give conclusive evidence that rumination is a mechanism of change in trauma-focused treatment for PTSD.

Rumination Mediates the Relationship Between Negative Affect and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Female Interpersonal Trauma Survivors.

Prior research has identified both rumination and negative affect (NA) as dimensional constructs related to the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). While both dimensions demonstrate significant positive relationships with symptoms of PTSD, the relationship between the two within the context of the disorder has yet to be explored. Consistent with prior research in the social anxiety literature, the present study seeks to examine a model of mediation by which rumination accounts for the significant relationship between NA and PTSD symptoms. Participants included 65 female interpersonal trauma survivors diagnosed with PTSD using structured, clinician-administered interviews. Both NA and rumination were observed as significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, and the variables were significantly associated with each other. However, NA was no longer a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms when rumination was entered into the mediation model, suggesting full mediation of the relationship by rumination. Results from the current study suggest a complex relationship between NA and rumination in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD, such that a ruminative cognitive coping style may either mitigate or exacerbate PTSD symptoms in the presence of sustained negative emotion. The current findings provide support for a cognitive model of PTSD, within which PTSD symptoms are influenced via negative, ruminative cognitions. Primary implications of these results include (a) the consideration of assessment of rumination in interpersonal trauma survivors with PTSD in clinical settings; (b) the selection of treatment that may address a ruminative cognitive style in this population, given the mediation between subjective distress and PTSD symptoms by rumination; and (c) the necessity for the validation of this mediation model within other traumatized populations.

The Relationship between Individual Coping Styles, Reported Levels of Resilience and Self-Blame Cognitions as Predictors of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms

Objective: Previous research has shown that coping styles, resilience and self-blame cognitions have predicted the experience of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However no previous research has examined these variables in conjunction before. Therefore, the aim of this present study was to examine the relationship between coping styles, resilience and self-blame cognitions to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, to identify the strongest predictor in a mixed adult trauma sample. Age, gender and length of time since the traumatic event was also included in the study, as past research has indicated these variables have also predicted PTSD symptoms. Method: A sample of 87 participants who identified they had experienced a traumatic event took part. A cross-sectional design was used and measures were administered online. Participants completed self-report measures on coping styles, resilience, self-blame cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Demographic information was collected. Results: Multiple regression analyses identified maladaptive coping was the only significant predictor of PTSD symptoms. Maladaptive coping accounted for 45.6% of the variance in scores. No other significant predictors were found. Conclusion: The findings suggest there is a relationship between maladaptive coping style and PTSD symptoms in adults who have experienced a traumatic event. Maladaptive coping increases PTSD symptoms, and this study has found maladaptive coping appears to be a particular strong predictor in predicting PTSD symptoms. It appears maladaptive coping should be targeted during interventions. Further research is needed into exploring the specific types of traumatic events, and potential factors predicting PTSD symptoms depending on the nature of the traumatic event.

Relationship between burnout and PTSD symptoms in firefighters: the moderating effects of a sense of calling to firefighting.

Firefighting has been reported to lead to burnout and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, burnout and PTSD symptoms may vary depending on personal characteristics, such as having a sense of calling. This study examined the role of calling in the association between burnout and PTSD symptoms. We hypothesized that burnout would be associated with more severe PTSD symptoms and calling would buffer the relationship between burnout and PTSD symptoms. The Korean version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey, Sense of Calling Subscale of the Professionalism Scale, and the Impact of Event Scale-Revised-Korean version were used to measure burnout, calling, and PTSD symptoms. Data from 109 of 127 firefighters from Gyeonggi-do, South Korea were analyzed using hierarchical linear regression. Burnout was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, the interaction term between burnout and calling accounted for a significant variance in PTSD symptoms. Higher burnout was associated with severe PTSD symptoms, but this relationship differed by the level of calling. The increase in PTSD symptoms due to increased burnout in the high calling group was relatively higher than in the low and average calling groups. Calling, though perceived as a positive variable, can be hazardous to exhausted people. A sense of calling as part of one's job identity should not be encouraged until personal circumstances and characteristics, such burnout symptoms, are evaluated. Identifying context and variables associated with PTSD for interventions with firefighters and persons in other dangerous occupations should aid in their recovery from trauma exposure.

Balanced and less traumatized: Balanced time perspective mediates the relationship between temperament and severity of PTSD syndrome in motor vehicle accident survivor sample

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms describe a common chronic and disabling reaction of individuals exposed to extreme stress. The negative influence of PTSD on people's functioning justifies researchers' efforts to define predictors of the disorder and the factors that can prevent the development of PTSD. Existing research exposes a pronounced role of temperamental traits, in addition to the severity of trauma exposure. Experience of the traumatic event and subjective assessment of its consequences may also be influenced by individual differences in the time perspective profile, particularly the indicator of temporal adaptation referred to as balanced time perspective (BTP). The aim of the present research was to establish the relationship between time perspective, trauma exposure and temperament and its influence on the level of PTSD symptoms. The regression analyses showed that briskness, emotional reactivity, BTP and trauma severity were significant predictors of PTSD symptoms and that BTP mediated the relationship between temperament and PTSD. People exposed to more severe trauma who were prone to strong emotional reactions and were less flexible in coping with trauma revealed a negatively biased time perspective, which resulted in the development of PTSD symptoms.

Attachment Patterns as Mediators of the Link Between Combat Exposure and Posttraumatic Symptoms: A Study Among Portuguese War Veterans

We analyzed the role of both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance as a mediators of the effects of combat exposure on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Participants were Portuguese veterans (N = 60) divided into 2 groups: 30 suffered from chronic PTSD (nonrecovered) and 30 had remission from PTSD (recovered). Combat exposure, attachment patterns, and PTSD symptoms were assessed through self-report measures. Mediation test was performed by conducting several hierarchical regression analyses. Results showed higher attachment anxiety among nonrecovered participants. We did not find statistically significant differences between groups for both attachment avoidance and combat exposure level scores. In mediation analysis, at first step, attachment avoidance was not a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms, and attachment avoidance did not enter in subsequent analysis. Attachment anxiety was a partial mediator of the effect of combat exposure on PTSD symptoms. Implications of the findings for both attachment theory and clinical intervention on trauma are discussed.

Untangling Psychiatric Comorbidity in Young Children Who Experienced Single, Repeated, or Hurricane Katrina Traumatic Events.

In individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 70%-90% have at least one comorbid non-PTSD disorder. This study tested several hypotheses to untangle comorbidity issues. Following McMillen et al. (2002), we hypothesized that few non-PTSD disorders would arise following traumatic events in children with substantial PTSD symptoms. Second, Repeated Events victims would show more internalizing and externalizing problems compared to Single Event and Hurricane Katrina victims. Third, we aimed to replicate in young children the finding from older populations that exposure to multiple events, not the type of event, would predict severity of symptoms. These results would inform speculations that repeated and prolonged traumas produce greater symptom complexity. Children 3-6 years of age were recruited for three types of trauma: Single (n=62), Hurricane Katrina (n=85), and Repeated Events (n=137), and assessed with caregiver reports from a diagnostic interview. Overall, 95% of children who developed new non-PTSD disorders following traumas also had substantial PTSD symptoms. The Katrina and Repeated Events groups showed more diagnoses of oppositional defiant disorder compared to the Single Event group, but groups did not differ on PTSD, depression, anxiety, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cumulative number of events was the only significant predictor of PTSD symptoms, while type of trauma and total occurrences of traumas did not predict additional variance. These data provide empirical support for targeting interventions on PTSD following traumas and disasters. The homogeneity of outcomes across types of traumas provides little empirical support for speculations that repeated and prolonged traumas produce greater symptom complexity.

Predicting post‐traumatic growth and post‐traumatic stress in firefighters

Emergency service workers (e.g., firefighters, police, and paramedics) are exposed to elevated levels of potentially traumatising events through the course of their work. Such exposure can have lasting negative consequences (e.g., post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) and/or positive outcomes (e.g., post‐traumatic growth (PTG)). Research had implicated trauma, occupational and personal variables that account for variance in post‐trauma outcomes yet at this stage no research has investigated these factors and their relative influence on both PTSD and PTG in a single study. Based in Calhoun and Tedeschi's model of PTG and previous research, in this study regression models of PTG and PTSD symptoms among 218 firefighters were tested. Results indicated organisational factors predicted symptoms of PTSD, while there was partial support for the hypothesis that coping and social support would be predictors of PTG. Experiencing multiple sources of trauma, higher levels of organisational and operational stress, and utilising cognitive reappraisal coping were all significant predictors of PTSD symptoms. Increases in PTG were predicted by experiencing trauma from multiple sources and the use of self‐care coping. Results highlight the importance of organisational factors in the development of PTSD symptoms, and of individual factors for promoting PTG.

Examining cumulative victimization, community violence exposure, and stigma as contributors to PTSD symptoms among high-risk young women.

This study examines patterns of lifetime victimization within the family, community violence exposure, and stigma as contributors to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms within a sample of 198 high-risk young women who are pregnant or parenting. We used cluster analysis to identify 5 profiles of cumulative victimization, based on participants' levels of witnessing intimate partner violence (IPV), physical abuse by an adult caregiver, and sexual victimization, all beginning by age 12. Hierarchical regression was used to examine these 5 clusters (ranging from a High All Victimization cluster characterized by high levels of all 3 forms of violence, to a Low All Victimization cluster characterized by low levels of all 3 forms), along with community violence exposure and stigma, as predictors of PTSD symptoms. We found that 3 of the cumulative victimization clusters, in comparison with Low All Victimization, were significant predictors of PTSD symptoms, as was stigma, while community violence exposure was not a significant predictor.

Predicting post-traumatic stress disorder in veterans: Interaction of traumatic load with COMT gene variation

BackgroundBecause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by definition can occur only after exposure to a traumatic event, military veterans who are at high risk for trauma exposure are a particularly relevant population for studying the interaction of trauma with genetic factors that may predispose for the disorder. A number of studies have implicated specific genes as possible risk factors in developing PTSD, including the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene (COMT). MethodsData from Iraq War veterans (n = 236) were used to examine the interaction between COMT and traumatic experiences in predicting later development of PTSD symptoms. Subjects were assessed for exposure to traumatic events both before and during deployment. ResultsThe interaction between trauma load and COMT was a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms. Those with the heterozygous genotype (Val/Met) showed fewer symptoms associated with trauma exposure compared to those with either homozygous genotype. This interaction remained significant after controlling for other risk factors for PTSD, including personality dimensions of Internalizing and Externalizing. ConclusionsCOMT genotype affects risk for development of PTSD symptoms following exposure to trauma.