Significant Main Effect For Type Research Articles

Race and sex differences in HDL peroxide content among American adults with and without type 2 diabetes

BackgroundHigh-density lipoprotein (HDL) plays a critical role in protection against atherosclerosic and cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). In addition to contributing to clearing excess vascular cholesterol, HDL particles exhibit antioxidative functions, helping to attenuate adverse effects of oxidized low-density lipoproteins. However, these beneficial properties can be undermined by oxidative stress, inflammation, and unhealthy lifestyles and diet, as well as influenced by race and sex. Thus, when assessing cardiovascular risk, it is important to consider multifactorial aspects of HDL, including antioxidant activity rather than just total amount and type of HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) particles. Because prior research showed HDL peroxide content (HDLperox) can be inversely associated with normal anti-oxidant HDL activity, elevated HDLperox may serve as a bioindicator of HDL dysfunction.MethodsIn this study, data from a large national cohort of Americans was utilized to determine the impact of sex, race, and diabetes status on HDLperox in middle-aged and older adults. A previously developed cell-free fluorometric method was utilized to quantify HDLperox in serum depleted of apo-B containing lipoproteins.ResultsIn keeping with predictions, white men and diabetics exhibited HDLperox in the atypical upper range, suggestive of less functional HDL. White men had higher HDLperox levels than African American males (13.46 ± 6.10 vs. 10.88 ± 5.81, p < .001). There was also a significant main effect of type 2 diabetes (F(1,1901) = 14.9, p < .0001). Overall, African Americans evinced lower HDLperox levels, despite more obesity (10.3 ± 4.7 vs.11.81 ± 5.66 for Whites) suggesting that other aspects of lipid metabolism and psychosocial factors account for the higher prevalence of ASCVD in African Americans.ConclusionThis research helps to provide a more comprehensive understanding of HDL function in a racially and metabolically diverse adult population. HDLperox content was significantly different in adults with type 2 diabetes, and distinctive in nondiabetic White males, and suggests other processes account for the higher prevalence of ASCVD among African Americans.

A Study of Teacher Effectiveness, General Intelligence and Creativity of Secondary School Teachers

The present study attempts to compare teacher effectiveness, general intelligence and creativity of secondary school teachers in relation to gender and type of school. The sample for the study consisted of 850 secondary school teachers of Punjab. The findings of the study revealed that there is no significant difference in teacher effectiveness of male and female secondary school teachers. The significant main effect of type of school is independent of gender groups, i.e. government school teachers are effective both in case of male and female groups of school teachers. There is significant difference in general intelligence of male and female secondary school teachers, female teachers being more intelligent as compared to male teachers, both in case of government and private schools. The results also show that male teachers of private secondary schools are more creative than female teachers of private secondary schools but not in case of government secondary schools. Government school teachers are significantly high on creativity than private school teachers only in case of female group and not in case of male teachers. Teacher effectiveness is positively and significantly related with general intelligence and creativity among secondary school teachers.

Delivery of Family-Based Treatment for Adolescent Anorexia Nervosa in a Public Health Care Setting: Research Versus Non-Research Specialty Care.

Comparing evidence-based psychotherapy (EBP) to usual care typically demonstrates the superiority of EBPs, although this has not been studied for eating disorders EBPs such as family-based treatment (FBT). The current study set out to examine weight outcomes for adolescents with anorexia nervosa who received FBT through a randomized clinical research trial (RCT, n = 54) or non-research specialty care (n = 56) at the same specialist pediatric eating disorder service. Weight was recorded throughout outpatient treatment (up to 18 sessions over 6 months), as well as at 6- and 12-month follow-up. Survival curves were used to examine time to weight restoration [greater than 95% median body mass index (mBMI)] as predicted by type of care (RCT vs. non-research specialty care), baseline clinical and demographic characteristics, and their potential interaction. Results did not indicate a significant main effect for type of care, but there was a significant effect for baseline weight (p = .03), such that weight restoration was achieved faster across both treatment types for those with a higher initial %mBMI. These data suggest that weight restoration achieved in non-research specialty care FBT was largely similar to that achieved in a controlled research trial.Clinical Trial Registrationhttp://www.anzctr.org.au/, identifier ACTRN12610000216011.

Change your language, change your mind?

Research findings on whether or not using a foreign language systematically alters people’s decisions by mitigating framing effects, are inconclusive. The bulk of previous research suggests that our decisions are affected by the language they are made in. A more recent study however indicates that this phenomenon might be related to an unexpected switch of language prior to a decision rather than to the use of a foreign language as such. In order to advance the current state of knowledge, the present study assessed the decision preferences of 200 participants. Half of them were subjected to a switch of language right before answering the “Asian disease problem”, the other half was not. A novel feature compared to previous research was to include cognitive measures in our design in order to capture the participants’ language and task switching abilities. In line with the existent literature, where framing was shown to reliably affect people’s decision patterns, our regression analysis suggested a significant main effect of type of frame on the participants’ decision tendencies. Similarly, language of initial instruction appeared to be a significant predictor of the participants’ choices. An unexpected switch of language and the participants’ switching abilities on the other hand could not be corroborated as predictor variables.

The impact of type 2 diabetes and body mass index on cerebral structure is modulated by brain reserve.

Body mass index (BMI), hyperglycaemia and type 2 diabetes and their interactive effects are associated with brain volume atrophy in ageing. It remains to be established if these risk factors are particularly concerning in individuals with high or low brain volumes. Demographics, venous blood and magnetic resonance imaging data were collected for 494 healthy community-living adults aged 53-78 (mean 65)years, as part of the Personality and Total Health Through Life study. Associations between BMI, blood glucose, diabetes status and brain volume (whole brain, grey matter, white matter and subcortical structures) were investigated using quantile regression. Quantile regression revealed vulnerability to BMI×glucose interactions particularly in lower volumes and significant main effects for type 2 diabetes particularly in higher volumes. Diabetes was most strongly associated with brain volumes. The association between BMI, blood glucose and diabetes was not consistent across the full range of brain volumes. Explicit investigation of the upper and lower boundaries of brain volume distributions was valuable. We found evidence of protective reserve from higher brain volumes and that a combination of high BMI and higher blood glucose was particularly concerning for individuals with lower brain volumes.

Development of the malay digit triplet test via headphones and telephones as a national hearing screening tool in Malaysia

Introduction: This study aimed to develop a self-administered hearing screening test using digit triplets in Malay (MDTT) to be used as a national hearing screening tool via internet and telephone landlines in Malaysia. Methods: Recordings of disyllabic Malay digits by a female Malay native speaker were used together with a speech shaped stationary noise (TSN). The test stimuli were normalized using responses from twenty normal hearing native Malay speakers. The data were used to produce eight equivalent test lists. An additional twenty normal hearing native Malay speakers were recruited to test the lists equivalency. Forty six listeners with varying levels of hearing were recruited to validate the tests. ROC analysis was done to identify the pass and refer cut-off limits. Results: No statistical differences were found between lists for both test conditions. The evaluation in fixed SNRs resulted in a mean speech reception threshold (SRT) of -11.3 ± 0.34 dB SNR for headphone and -10.24 ± 0.1 dB SNR for telephone applications. A significant main effect of type of transducer was observed in both normal and hearing impaired groups. The cut off for refer, sensitivity and specificity for the tests using telephones are (-5.8dB, 80.8%, 95%) and headphones (-9.8dB, 80.8%, 100%). Conclusions: The MDTT was successfully developed and the normative values are comparable to other versions of the digit triplet tests. The MDTT showed high sensitivity and specificity and can be made available to any Malay speaking public via telephone and internet.

Erratum

White, Katherine, Lily Lin, Darren W. Dahl, and Robin J. B. Ritchie (2016), “When Do Consumers Avoid Imperfections? Superficial Packaging Damage as a Contamination Cue,” Journal of Marketing Research, 53 (February), 110–23. (Original DOI: 10.1509/jmr.12.0388 ) The following reporting errors have been noted in this article. These errors were clerical only, and the changes do not affect the data patterns or significance of the results in any way. Study 1, page 113 The numerator degrees of freedom for the interaction should be 2. At the end of the last full paragraph, the text should read: “The interaction qualified a significant main effect for type of package damage (F(2, 139) = 4.90, p &lt; .05) and a marginal main effect for cognitive load (F(1, 139) = 3.36, p &lt; .07).” Study 2, page 115 The degrees of freedom should be 130. The text should read: “Results revealed a main effect for packaging damage (t(130) = 5.49, p &lt; .001; b = −.561) and the anticipated three-way interaction (t(130) = 2.24, p &lt; .03; b = −.286; see Figure 2).” Study 4, page 116 The numerator degrees of freedom was omitted in one sentence. The text should read: “As we predicted, packaging appearance predicted both contamination perceptions (F(2, 150) = 4.17, p &lt; .05) and health and safety concerns (F(2, 150) = 3.41, p &lt; .05; see Table 1).” Study 5, page 118 The initial sample size is 200 participants. The text should say: “Those who failed to properly complete the cognitive load task were removed from the analyses (9.5% of the sample, leaving 181 participants).”

The effect of auditory and visual training on the mismatch negativity in schizophrenia

BackgroundThe mismatch negativity (MMN) is an electrophysiological index of early auditory attention and has repeatedly been suggested to be associated with cognitive functioning. Despite the frequently reported finding of reduced MMN amplitude in schizophrenia, up to now, studies assessing the impact of perceptual discrimination training aiming to improve MMN measures in schizophrenia patients are scarce. MethodIn the present study, the effect of auditory training (AUD, n=14) on the MMN was compared to that of visual-spatial training (VIS, n=14) and a treatment-as-usual (TAU, n=14) condition in schizophrenia patients. Training consisted of ten 50-min sessions over two weeks. Assessments took place before and after training and at a two-month follow-up. They comprised clinical measures and MMN recordings to frequency and duration deviant stimuli. ResultsThere was a significant main effect for type of stimulus deviance with a more negative MMN to frequency than duration deviants. In contrast to our hypotheses, we did not find training specific effects on MMN amplitude or latency. ConclusionThe visual, as well as the auditory training program failed to result in treatment related MMN changes in schizophrenia patients when compared to treatment-as-usual as a control condition. In contrast to reports in healthy subjects, the induction of training related MMN changes in schizophrenia patients may constitute a specific challenge and require more extensive training protocols.

Practice-based evidence for outpatient, acceptance & commitment therapy for veterans with chronic, non-cancer pain

Past research has shown that Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT) compares favorably with Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in the treatment of chronic pain among different populations. However, practice-based evidence comparing ACT and CBT to treat chronic, non-cancer pain solely among a Veteran population is lacking. The current pilot study used a quasi-experimental, single-site, pre-/post-test design. A sample of 96 Veterans participated in the study at a Midwestern Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center between November 3, 2009–November 4, 2010. Veterans self-selected to participate in either a manualized ACT or CBT for chronic pain group. All participants completed a standard pre- and post-intervention assessment battery. A 2×2 RM MANOVA did not find a significant interaction effect nor a significant main effect for type of intervention. The ACT intervention was not significantly different from the CBT intervention on the standard outcome measures. Findings did suggest that both groups decreased illness-focused coping strategies, catastrophizing behaviors, and global distress levels over time. Further research is needed to help identify a tailoring variable that can provide guidance in developing adaptive and/or sequential treatment strategies.

Pain-Coping Traits of Nontraditional Women Athletes: Relevance to Optimal Treatment and Rehabilitation.

The primary goal of traditional treatment and rehabilitation programs is to safely return athletes to full functional capacity. Nontraditional activities such as rock climbing or rodeo are typically less training structured and coach structured; individualism, self-determination, and autonomy are more prevalent than observed in athletes in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)-sponsored sports. The limited research available on nontraditional athletes has provided the athletic trainer little insight into the coping skills and adaptations to stressors that these athletes may bring into the clinical setting, especially among the growing number of women participating in these types of activities. A better understanding of the pain-coping traits of nontraditional competitors would enhance insight and triage procedures while heading off potential athlete-related risk factors in the clinical setting. To quantify and compare pain-coping traits among individual-sport women athletes participating in nontraditional versus traditional NCAA-structured competition, with relevance to optimal treatment and rehabilitation. Cross-sectional study. Data collected during each participant's respective group meeting before seasonal activity. Participants or Other Participants : A total of 298 athletes involved in either nontraditional, non-NCAA individual sports (n = 152; mean age = 20.2 ± 1.3 years; downhill skiing, martial arts, rock climbing, rodeo, skydiving, telemark skiing) or traditional NCAA sports (n = 146; mean age = 20.3 ± 1.4 years; equestrian, golf, swimming/diving, tennis, track). All participants completed the Sports Inventory for Pain, a sport-specific, self-report instrument that measures pain-coping traits relevant to competition, treatment, and rehabilitation. Trait measures were direct coping, cognitive, catastrophizing, avoidance, body awareness, and total coping response. Data were grouped for analyses by type of athlete (nontraditional, traditional). We found a significant main effect for type of athlete (Wilks' λ F6,291 = 12.922; P = .0001). Nontraditional sport athletes scored lower on direct coping (P = .0001), cognitive (P = .0001), catastrophizing (P = .0001), and total coping response (P = .0001) than traditional athletes. Women participating in nontraditional individual-sport activity revealed less pronounced pain-coping traits than women participating in more coach-structured, traditional NCAA sports. Sport and medical personnel should consider the type of athlete when prescribing training, treatment, and rehabilitation for optimal performance and return to play.

Impairments in Negative Facial Emotion Recognition in Chinese Schizophrenia Patients Detected With a Newly Designed Task.

Facial emotion recognition has been found to be impaired in schizophrenia, although overall results have been inconclusive. A new set of facial emotion stimuli with Chinese faces was developed, using static and dynamic avatars, the identification of which were subsequently validated in 562 healthy control subjects. This test was then used to identify facial emotion recognition accuracy in 44 patients with schizophrenia and 41 healthy controls. Overall, patients identified facial emotions significantly worse than healthy controls (p = 0.018) with a significant main effect for type of emotion (p = 0.016). Patients performed significantly worse in fear (p = 0.029) and sadness (p = 0.037), and marginally worse in anger (p = 0.052). No significant differences were evident in contempt (p = 0.254) or happiness (p = 0.943). Regarding error rates of misattribution, patients overidentified contempt (p = 0.035) and sadness (p = 0.01), but not anger, fear, or happiness. Conclusion, patients of Chinese ethnicity with schizophrenia may have significantly greater difficulties identifying negative, but not positive emotions.

Do environment and type of walking influence gait temporal parameters of straight walking?

Introduction: Instrumented gait analysis is traditionally carried out in standardised indoor conditions [1], which may not reflect free natural walking. Wearable sensors can be used to record data in free walking conditions to improve and reinforce the interpretation of data acquired in laboratory conditions. Using plantar pressure insoles and magneto-inertial sensors, this study aimed to determine if straight walking temporal parameters are influenced by the environment (indoor or outdoor) and by the type of walking experiment (controlled or free), in a group of healthy volunteers. Methods: Ten healthy participants were instructed to walk at self-selected pace in a 25-m long straight path (8 times), both indoor and outdoor. Then, they were asked to walk freely without restrictions both indoor along the university corridors (∼5 min) and outdoor, in the city centre (∼15 min). A portable plantar pressure system (F-Scan, Tekscan) and inertial sensors (Opal, Apdm) were used to record data. Straight walking intervals during free walking were isolated for comparison applying a Haar wavelet transform to the quaternion output of the lumbar (L5) inertial sensor, to identify changes in walking direction. Mean, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) were computed for the temporal parameters [2]. Hundred-fifty steps were isolated per each walking condition and differences were investigated using two-way (environment and type of walking) repeated measures ANOVA (post-hoc pairwise comparison with p = 0.01 and Bonferroni correction). Results: The results are summarised in Table 1. There was a significant main effect of environment for swing time (p = 0.004), step time (p = 0.010) and stride time (p = 0.002), with all three parameters being smaller during outdoor walking. There was a significant main effect of type of walking on step (p = 0.007) and stride (p = 0.008) time and step cadence (p = 0.004). No interaction effects were observed.

From efficacy to effectiveness: Comparing outcomes for youth with anorexia nervosa treated in research trials versus clinical care

This study examined outcomes for 84 youth with anorexia nervosa (AN) who received family-based treatment (FBT) in a research trial (randomized trial care [RTC]: n = 32) compared to fee-for-service care (specialty clinical care [SCC]: n = 52) at an outpatient eating disorder clinic. Weight was collected up to 12 months post-baseline. Survival curves were used to examine time to weight restoration as predicted by type of care, baseline demographic and clinical characteristics, and their interaction. There was not a significant main effect for type of care, but its interaction with initial %EBW was significant (p = .005), indicating that weight restoration was achieved faster in RTC compared to SCC for youth with a lower initial %EBW (i.e., ≤81), while rates of weight restoration were comparable for those with a higher initial %EBW (i.e., >81). These data suggest that FBT is as effective as it is efficacious, except for youth with lower initial body weights. Therefore, clinicians may need to be particularly active in encouraging early weight gain for this subset of patients. Nevertheless, this study suggests that FBT is appropriate as a first-line treatment for youth with AN who present for clinical care.

Perceived severity of school bullying in elementary schools based on participants’ roles

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceived severity of school bullying among participants with different roles (victims, bullies, bullies/victims and non-involved individuals) and to determine whether interactions between type of bullying and participant roles exist. Two Olweus-like global items and a revised School Bullying Severity Scale for elementary students were used in this study. A total of 1816 valid surveys completed by students in grades 5 and 6 (mean age = 11.5, SD = .84) were collected. Data were analysed using a mixed-model two-way ANOVA. The results revealed a significant main effect of type of bullying. Physical and verbal bullying were perceived as more severe than relational and cyberbullying. A significant two-way interaction between bullying category and participant role was also identified. Bullies did not perceive the four types of victimisation behaviours differently, whereas victims and bullies/victims both rated physical victimisation as most severe and cyber-victimisation as least severe. However, effect sizes were small. Implications for bullying prevention and intervention are discussed.

Better oral health related quality of life: Type of prosthesis or psychological robustness?

Sense of coherence (SOC) is an individual-based coping characteristic and believed to influence a person's ability to adapt to life stressors, such as edentulism and using complete denture. Thus, SOC may mediate the effect of prosthetic treatment on quality of life. Objectives 1. To simultaneously test the effect of type of treatment and sense of coherence on oral health related quality of life (OHRQoL) in edentate elders and to identify any interaction. 2. To report the level of sense of coherence among a sample of edentate elders. Methods Data were collected and analysed cross-sectionally at a 1-year follow-up from 173 edentulous elders who had randomly received mandibular-implant overdentures or conventional dentures, both opposed by new conventional maxillary dentures. The dependent outcome variable, oral health related quality of life, was measured using the Oral Health Impact Profile (OHIP-20). Independent variables included SOC and prosthesis type, as well as socio-demographic variables. SOC was evaluated using the 13-item likert scale of The Orientation to Life questionnaire. Results The group mean SOC score was 70.28 (SD = 9.6). Married or coupled people had significantly higher SOC scores than those who were separated, single or divorced ( p = 0.04). General linear model analyses demonstrated that there was a statistically significant main effect for type of prosthesis, F(1.169) = 0.71, p = 0.008, with no interaction with SOC. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that, in edentulous elders, SOC does not mediate the effect of the type of prosthetic treatment on oral health related quality of life.

Transient tinnitus suppression induced by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation

Modulation of activity in the left temporoparietal area (LTA) by 10 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) results in a transient reduction of tinnitus. We aimed to replicate these results and test whether transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of LTA could yield similar effect. Patients with tinnitus underwent six different types of stimulation in a random order: 10-Hz rTMS of LTA, 10-Hz rTMS of mesial parietal cortex, sham rTMS, anodal tDCS of LTA, cathodal tDCS of LTA and sham tDCS. A non-parametric analysis of variance showed a significant main effect of type of stimulation (P = 0.002) and post hoc tests showed that 10-Hz rTMS and anodal tDCS of LTA resulted in a significant reduction of tinnitus. These effects were short lasting. These results replicate the findings of the previous study and, in addition, show preliminary evidence that anodal tDCS of LTA induces a similar transient tinnitus reduction as high-frequency rTMS.

Quality of care attributions to employed versus stay‐at‐home mothers

The present study was designed to find whether evaluations of maternal competence are linked to mothers’ employment status and the quality of maternal care. Participants rated videotaped vignettes, depicting either high‐quality or low‐quality mother–infant interactions, on various dimensions of care quality. The videotaped mothers were described to one‐half of the participants as ‘stay‐at‐home mothers’ and to the other half as ‘working mothers.’ Analysis revealed a significant main effect of type of care on maternal evaluations. ‘At‐home’ mothers were rated as providing better care than ‘working mothers.’ Additionally, participants whose mothers worked and who experienced non‐parental care as children were more likely to report positive attitudes about daycare and maternal employment. Finally, participants with less favorable attitudes toward maternal employment showed a more pronounced negative bias in rating high‐quality working mothers.

Hispanic physicians' tobacco intervention practices: a cross-sectional survey study

BackgroundU.S. Hispanic physicians constitute a considerable professional collective, and they may be most suited to attend to the health education needs of the growing U.S. Hispanic population. These educational needs include tobacco use prevention and smoking cessation. However, there is a lack of information on Hispanic physicians' tobacco intervention practices, their level of awareness and use of cessation protocols, and the type of programs that would best address their tobacco training needs. The purpose of this study was to assess the tobacco intervention practices and training needs of Hispanic physicians.MethodsData was collected through a validated survey instrument among a cross-sectional sample of self-reported Hispanic physicians. Data analyses included frequencies, descriptive statistics, and factorial analyses of variance.ResultsThe response rate was 55.5%. The majority of respondents (73.3%) were middle-age males. Less than half of respondents routinely performed the most basic intervention: asking patients about smoking status (44.4%) and advising smoking patients to quit (42.2%). Twenty-five percent assisted smoking patients by talking to them about the health risks of smoking, providing education materials or referring them to cessation programs. Only 4.4% routinely arranged follow-up visits or phone calls for smoking patients. The majority of respondents (64.4%) indicated that they prescribe cessation treatments to less than 20% of smoking patients. A few (4.4%) routinely used behavioral change techniques or programs. A minority (15.6%) indicated that they routinely ask their patients about exposure to tobacco smoke, and 6.7% assisted patients exposed to secondhand smoke in understanding the health risks associated with environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). The most frequently encountered barriers preventing respondents from intervening with patients who smoke included: time, lack of training, lack of receptivity by patients, and lack of reimbursement by third party payers. There was no significant main effect of type of physician, nor was there an interaction effect (gender by type of physician), on tobacco-related practices.ConclusionThe results indicate that Hispanic physicians, similarly to U.S. physicians in general, do not meet the level of intervention recommended by health care agencies. The results presented will assist in the development of tobacco training initiatives for Hispanic physicians.

Motor performance with a simulated artificial limb.

The present study was conducted to examine performance differences on a reaching and grasping task related to an activity of daily living. This involved either the anatomical limb or a simulated artificial limb. College-aged volunteers (2 men and 4 women), one of whom was left-handed, performed the reaching and grasping task. The apparatus, placed on a table before the seated participant, was a square wooden board which contained a starting key and holes for the insertion and removal of a small Fiberglas dowel. At the beginning of the trial the participant depressed the start key, reached forward and grasped the dowel, and then returned the dowel to a finishing hole located directly in front of the start key. The results of 2 (side) x 2 (type of limb) repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance on the mean and standard deviation of the movement times showed a significant main effect for type of limb (Wilks lambda 3,3 = .047 and .079, respectively, p < .05). Analyses of variance on mean total transport time, extension time, flexion time, and their standard deviations showed that times were slower and less consistent with the prosthesis for all measures. These results and those of later research should be focused on the development of training principles for both therapists and individuals with an amputation. In addition, the simulated prosthesis is an excellent experimental model for basic and clinical research in the control and acquisition of coordinated movement.

Toward operationalizing the process of attention in SLA: Evidence for Tomlin and Villa's (1994) finegrained analysis of attention

AbstractThis study investigates, from a task-based approach and at a morphological level, Tomlin and Villa's (1994) fine-grained analysis of attention in second language acquisition. Four groups of beginning learners of Spanish completed one of four crossword puzzles designed to isolate the effects of alertness, orientation, and detection. Repeated-measures ANOVAs performed on the raw scores obtained on the pretest and three posttests of a recognition and written production task revealed significant main effects for type of attentional function, time, and significant interactions. The results lend strong empirical support to Tomlin and Villa's (1994) fine-grained analysis of attention while indicating short-term effects of detection.