Sierra Nevada Surface Mine Research Articles

Promoting Forest Recovery on a Surface Mine Site With Nutritional Amendments

Selected nutrient amendments were evaluated for their capacity to enhance growth and nutrition of Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) seedlings 3 yr after planting on an acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine. The amendments were applied by topdressing at four rates each and consisted of Forestcote 22-4-6 + Minors, a controlled release formulation; Free Flow 29-3-4 and Hydro Agri 21-7-14, two conventional fertilizers with the former featuring urea as the predominant N source while that for the latter was exclusively ammoniacal and nitrate forms; and Milorganite 6-2-0 + Iron, an organic amendment derived from municipal biosolids. The Forestcote and Free Flow formulations proved most adept at reinvigorating seedling growth while Hydro Agri and Milorganite were the least stimulatory. The lowest application rates employed were inadequate but the most advantageous rate differed somewhat by formulation. Foliar analysis revealed that fertilized seedlings had more N and P but less Mn and Al than the control. Enhanced N nutrition especially, but also that of P, probably accounted for most of the growth stimulation by the amendments, as availability of both in the soil was limiting. Of the two metallic elements, reduced Mn was likely most critical because concentrations encountered here were exceedingly elevated overall, including that in the soil, although soil Al was high also. These results suggest that a variety of nutritional amendments can be employed in forest restoration on surface mine sites and those similarly degraded, including sites for which dry climates greatly influence the selection of remedial practices.

Nutritional Augmentation of Jeffrey Pine Saplings on a Harsh Sierran Site

Broadcast fertilization with an array of amendments was examined for its capacity to reinvigorate growth and enhance nutrition of a 12-yr-old Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) plantation growing on an acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine site. Selected amendments consisted of Viking Brand 21-7-14, Free Flow 29-3-4, High N 22-4-6 + Minors, and Milorganite 6-2-0 + Iron—formulations that differed substantially in critical characteristics including N sources and the duration of release, and each was administered using three rates of application. All formulations stimulated sapling growth during some stage of the study, especially when applied at the highest rates, but the Free Flow amendment, which features urea as the predominant N source, the High N formulation, which is a controlled release fertilizer, and Milorganite, an organic amendment based on municipal biosolids, sustained growth enhancement longer than the Viking amendment, which relies exclusively upon ammoniacal and nitrate N forms and lacks any provision for metering nutrient release. As indicated by foliar analysis, increased availability and uptake of N probably accounted for most of the added growth induced by fertilization, although improved P nutrition likely contributed as well. However, in addition to the N and P responses, fertilized saplings were frequently lower in Mn, B, and Al—all of which may be phytotoxic at elevated concentrations. Further support for the possible linkages between foliar concentrations noted above and sapling growth responses were provided by the concentrations of these elements in the mine soil, which was low in N and P but high in Mn, B, and Al. This study reports approaches to nutritional augmentation on degraded sites suitable for use during the sapling stage of tree development.

Postplanting Nutritional Augmentation of Jeffrey Pine Seedlings on an Infertile Sierran Site

Broadcast fertilization with an array of amendments was investigated for its capacity to stimulate growth and enhance nutrition of a three-year-old Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyiGrev. & Balf.) plantation growing on an acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine. Four formulations that differed in N source, duration of release, and the suite of nutrients provided were evaluated, with each applied using four rates. Free Flow 29-3-4, a conventional amendment featuring urea as its near exclusive N source, and High N 22-4-6, a controlled release formulation containing ammoniacal, nitrate, and urea N, were the most stimulatory while an organic formulation relying exclusively on a municipal biosolid N source, Milorganite 6-2-0, was the least so. The lowest application rates employed were inadequate while the most advantageous was not the highest rate for any formulation. Foliar analysis revealed that improved N nutrition was probably critical in the favorable growth responses to fertilization, that of P was a likely contributor, and amelioration of potential Mn toxicity may have assumed an accessory role.

Advancing Forest Cover Development on a High‐Elevation Sierra Nevada Mine Site with Nutritional Amendments

Abstract Selected nutrient amendments were evaluated for their capacity to enhance growth and nutrition of established but stunted Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) saplings on an acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine. The amendments were applied by topdressing at three rates each and consisted of Forestcote 22‐4‐6 + Minors, a controlled‐release formulation; Free Flow 29‐3‐4 and Hydro Agri 21‐7‐14, two conventional fertilizers, with the former featuring urea as the predominant N source, whereas that for the latter was exclusively ammoniacal and nitrate forms; and Milorganite 6‐2‐0 + Iron, an organic amendment based on municipal biosolids. All formulations reinvigorated sapling growth, generally more so as the amounts supplied increased, with the Free Flow and Hydro Agri amendments marginally more stimulative than Forestcote and Milorganite. Foliar analysis revealed that fertilized saplings had more N, with concentrations that generally rose with amounts supplied, and P but less Mn and Al than the control. Enhanced N nutrition in particular but also that of P probably accounted for most of the growth stimulation by the amendments, as availability of both in the soil was limiting. Of the two metallic elements, reduced Mn was likely most critical because concentrations encountered here were exceedingly elevated overall, including that in the soil, although soil Al was also high. These results suggest that a variety of nutritional amendments can be employed in forest restoration on surface mine sites and those similarly degraded, including sites for which dry climates greatly influence the selection of remedial practices.

Growth and Nutrition of Jeffrey Pine Seedlings on a Sierra Nevada Surface Mine in Response to Fertilization Three Years After Planting

Growth and Nutrition of Jeffrey Pine Seedlings on a Sierra Nevada Surface Mine in Response to Fertilization Three Years After Planting

Comparison of Organic and Chemical Soil Amendments Used in the Reforestation of a Harsh Sierra Nevada Site

Abstract A comparison of a composted organic amendment, a controlled‐release fertilizer, and induced mycorrhizal inoculation as affecting the establishment and nutrition of bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) was conducted on a Sierra Nevada surface mine. The soil amendments were applied at outplanting to the backfill of augered planting holes, with a low rate of 8 g and a high rate of 16 g per seedling for the fertilizer, Gromax 21‐6‐2 + Minors, whereas a single rate of 2.0 L was used for organic matter. Colonization by Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker & Couch was induced by coating the root systems with basidiospores suspended in a gel carrier. The organic amendment especially, but also mycorrhizal inoculation, caused substantial seedling mortality, whereas survival was unaffected by controlled‐release fertilization. Gromax applied at the high rate produced a 74% increase in shoot volume after three growing seasons, whereas the organic amendment reduced volume by 28%. Growth was unaffected by mycorrhizal treatment. The growth response to the 16‐g Gromax application probably reflected enhanced N, P, and K nutrition and decreased concentrations of potentially toxic metallic elements, including Mn and Al among others, as revealed through foliar analysis. Because they were accompanied by growth reduction, nutritional responses to the organic amendment, which involved both macronutrients and trace elements, were of little consequence. Impaired water relations may account for the poor response to this amendment. Likewise, nutritional responses to mycorrhizal inoculation produced no discernible benefit in terms of seedling performance. An inoculation procedure that failed to induce substantially greater P. tinctorius colonization in inoculated than uninoculated seedlings, and that may have also impaired water relations, likely explains this result. Overall, these findings indicate that further research is needed before either the organic amendment or the mycorrhizal inoculation procedure used here can be used in forest restoration efforts on dry sites.

Responses of Jeffrey Pine on a Surface Mine Site to Fertilizer and Lime

AbstractControlled‐release fertilization with two formulations, Forestcote 22‐4‐6 + Minors and Gromax 21‐6‐2 + Minors, and dolomitic lime were evaluated for their capacity to facilitate establishment and enhance nutrition of bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) on an acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine. All amendments were applied at outplanting to the backfill of augered planting holes, with a low rate of 8 g and a high rate of 16 g per seedling for the two fertilizer formulations, whereas a single rate of 30 g was used for lime. Liming induced excessive seedling mortality throughout the study, whereas both fertilizer formulations also reduced survival but only as an interactive effect with the lime amendment. Growth stimulation by the fertilizer applications was readily apparent after three growing seasons, with the response to the high rate surpassing that to the low rate and the response to the Forestcote formulation exceeding that to Gromax. Conversely, the lime amendment depressed seedling growth, and it is likely that a propensity to exacerbate the stress imposed by dry growing season soils through interference with water uptake accounts for the overall poor performance of the seedlings that received this amendment. Improved N and P nutrition, with the former likely the most critical, was largely responsible for the growth stimulation resulting from fertilization. However, this treatment also suppressed the absorption of certain micronutrients as well as that of Al, and the amelioration of potential phytotoxicities may have also contributed to the favorable performance of fertilized seedlings. Further evidence for this conclusion was supplied by base cation/metallic element molar ratios involving Al and Mn, which were frequently increased by fertilization. In contrast, the influence of the lime amendment on seedling nutrition was marginal, with positive responses too infrequent to improve seedling performance.

Organic Amendment, Fertilizer, and Lime Effects on Bareroot Jeffrey Pine Outplanted on a Sierra Nevada Surface Mine

Composted organic matter, controlled release fertilizer, and dolomitic lime soil amendments were evaluated for their effectiveness in facilitating the reforestation of an acidic, semiarid Sierra Nevada surface mine with bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.). Single application rates were used for the organic matter (2.0 L) and lime (28 g) amendments while low and high rates (8 g and 16 g, respectively) of the chemical fertilizer, High N 22-4-6 + Minors, were employed. All amendments were administered at outplanting using the minisite application method. The organic and lime amendments suppressed seedling survival, more so with the former than the latter, but this result did not extend to the High N fertilizer. Growth was also suppressed by the organic and lime amendments, although there was some evidence that these responses were waning late in the study, while High N was exceedingly stimulatory, especially with the high application rate. Annual assessment of seedling nutrition during this three-year study revealed numerous High N and organic matter treatment influences. Among them, increases in foliar N, P, and K and reductions in Fe, Mn, Zn, and Al were prominent within the High N treatments, but particularly so at the high application rate. For the organic matter treatment, the above increases and decreases in elemental concentrations were again noted, although the nutritional responses to this treatment were generally more subdued and somewhat ephemeral in comparison with those to High N. Calculation of base cation/metallic element molar ratios revealed that the organic matter treatment had the highest Ca/Al, Ca/Mn, Mg/Al, Mg/Mn, K/Al, K/Mn, and K/Cu during the initial season, but exerted little influence on these ratios thereafter. The High N treatments produced the highest Ca/Cu and Mg/Cu in the first season, the highest Ca/Al, Mg/Al, K/Al, and K/Mn in the second, and the highest Ca/Al, Mg/Al, Mg/Mn, K/Al, and K/Mn in the third season, with the high application rate especially prominent. Seedling nutrition was, at best, minimally affected by liming, with perhaps its most notable influence that of counteracting the positive responses indicated above with regard to the organic amendment effects on molar ratios. Overall, these results indicate that in the reforestation of difficult sites such as eastern Sierra Nevada surface mines, the favorable responses to controlled release fertilization can not be duplicated using composted organic amendments, and furthermore, dolomitic lime applications by the method used here are likely to prove exceedingly detrimental to seedling establishment.

Reestablishment of Jeffrey Pine on an Acidic Sierra Nevada Surface Mine

A three-year study was initiated to evaluate the effectiveness of fertilization at outplanting with two controlled release nutrient amendments, High N 22-4-6 + Minors and Gromax 21-6-2 + Minors, and minisite application of dolomitic lime in enhancing the establishment and nutrition of bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) seedlings on a strongly acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine site. Fertilization rates of 8 g and 16 g per seedling and a single liming rate of 32 g were examined. Controlled release fertilization produced a substantial seedling growth response, more so with the High N than the Gromax formulation and with the 16 g rather than the 8 g rate. In contrast, liming suppressed growth and induced excessive seedling mortality. Among numerous fertilization effects on nutrition over the course of the study, increases in foliar N, P, and K, reductions in several potentially phyto-toxic elements including Mn and Al, and elevation of Ca/Al, Mg/Al, K/Al, Mg/Mn, and K/Mn molar ratios were prominent and likely responsible in large part for the favorable responses to this treatment. Liming had relatively little influence on nutrition, and much of that was probably detrimental, as exemplified by the lower Mg/Al, Ca/Mn, Mg/Mn, Ca/Cu, and Mg/Cu ratios of seedlings with lime during the critical first season when the preponderance of the mortality occurred. Nevertheless, it is likely that, as applied here, this amendment impaired seedling water relations on a site already limited by moisture availability, and this was of primary importance in the overall unfavorable response. Viewed in total, this study readily demonstrated the benefits that controlled release fertilization can provide in the reforestation of surface mines and similar harsh sites in the Sierra Nevada, but also revealed that minisite lime application at the rate used here was counterproductive and therefore further experimentation is necessary before this practice is routinely employed.

Growth and nutritional responses of bareroot Jeffrey pine on a Sierra Nevada surface mine to minisite applications of fertilizer and lime

The effects of two controlled release fertilizers, Forestcote 22-4-6 + Minors and Dry Site 21-6-2 + Minors, and also dolomitic lime, on growth and nutrition of bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) were investigated. Forestcote, which consists of loose prills, and Dry Site, consisting of prepackaged prills, were administered with two rates, while a single liming rate was used. An acidic Sierra Nevada surface mine provided the study site, and all amendments were applied at outplanting to the backfill of augered planting holes. Without impacting survival, both fertilizer formulations enhanced seedling growth, particularly at a 16 g rather than an 8 g application rate, although Forestcote was marginally more effective in this regard. In contrast, liming at a 27 g rate induced severe mortality and offset much of the growth gains resulting from fertilization. Improvements in N and P nutrition, as revealed by foliar analysis, probably accounted for much of the growth stimulation exhibited by fertilized seedlings, but reductions in the uptake of potentially phytotoxic trace elements such as Mn and Al and increases in base cation/metallic element ratios likely also contributed. The high application rate was generally preeminent in eliciting these nutritional responses. Liming induced little alteration of seedling nutrition. Impaired water relations may have caused the unfavorable responses to this treatment.

Fertilization and Liming Effects on the Growth and Nutrition of Bareroot Jeffrey Pine Outplanted on an Eastern Sierra Nevada Surface Mine

Abstract Two controlled-release fertilizer formulations, High N 22-4-6 + Minors and Forestry Dry Site 21-6-2 + Minors, and dolomitic lime were evaluated for their capacity to enhance establishment and nutrition of bareroot Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) on an eastern Sierra Nevada surface mine. All amendments were applied at outplanting to the backfill of augered planting holes using a low rate of 8 g and a high rate of 16 g for the two fertilizers and a single 26 g rate for lime. Seedlings without fertilizer or lime served as the control treatment. Survival was unaffected by fertilization regardless of formulation and rate, while height, diameter, and volume growth were increased significantly after three growing seasons. The response to High N exceeded that to Dry Site, and the 16 g application was more stimulatory than 8 g. Liming decreased seedling survival and growth throughout the study. Fertilization increased N, P, and K foliar concentrations while depressing the concentrations of several micronutrients and Al. The influence of the lime amendment on seedling nutrition was sporadic and marginal. These results indicate that controlled-release fertilization at outplanting is a viable means of elevating seedling performance on eastern Sierra Nevada surface mines and similar harsh sites, while the liming approach used here was counterproductive to achieving reforestation objectives. West. J. Appl. For. 17(1):23–30.

Reforestation of an Eastern Sierra Nevada Surface Mine with Containerized Jeffrey Pine

Fertilization with two controlled release nutrient formulations, High N % Minors 22-4-6 and Customblen 14-7-10, and ectomycorrhizal inoculation with Pisolithus tinctorius(Pers.) Coker & Couch were evaluated for their effects on growth, establishment, and nutrition of containerized Jeffrey pine (PinusjeffreyiGrev. & Balf.) on an eastern Sierra Nevada surface mine. Basidiospores from sporocarps collected at the mine were used to induce mycorrhizal formation in the nursery, and fertilization rates were 10, 20, or 30 g applied at outplant-ing. Mycorrhizal inoculation enhanced survival overall, but for both fertilizers, the 30 g application increased mortality except for inoculated seedlings that received High N. Seedling survival was unaffected by 10 or 20 g of either fertilizer, however. The growth response to High N exceeded that to Customblen, and among the High N treatments, growth stimulation by the 20 g application surpassed that by 10 or 30 g. Foliar N concentrations were increased by fertilization during the second and third growing seasons, more in the High N than Customblen treatments, and N concentrations generally increased with amendment application rate. Excessive uptake of B, supplied in high amounts by Customblen, likely resulted in the relatively poor performance of seedlings that received this formulation. Within most of the fertilization treatments, inoculated seedlings had lower foliar concentrations of several metallic elements, notably Mn and Al, than uninoculated seedlings during the first growing season, which may have contributed to the enhanced survival of the former.