Atmospheric Shortwave Absorption Research Articles

Climate Regimes across the Habitable Zone: A Comparison of Synchronous Rocky M and K Dwarf Planets

M and K dwarf stars make up 86% of the stellar population and host many promising astronomical targets for detecting habitable climates in the near future. Of the two, M dwarfs currently offer greater observational advantages and are home to many of the most exciting observational discoveries in the last decade. But K dwarfs could offer even better prospects for detecting habitability by combining the advantages of a relatively dim stellar flux with a more stable stellar environment. Here we explore the climate regimes that are possible on Earth-like synchronous planets in M and K dwarf systems, and how they vary across the habitable zone. We focus on surface temperature patterns, water availability, and implications for habitability. We find that the risk of nightside cold trapping decreases with increased orbital radius and is overall lower for K dwarf planets. With reduced atmospheric shortwave absorption, K dwarf planets have higher dayside precipitation rates and less day-to-night moisture transport, resulting in lower nightside snow rates. These results imply a higher likelihood of detecting a planet with a moist dayside climate in a habitable “eyeball” climate regime orbiting a K dwarf star. We also show that “terminator habitability” can occur for both M and K dwarf land planets, but would likely be more prevalent in M dwarf systems. Planets in a terminator habitability regime tend to have slightly lower fractional habitability, but offer alternative advantages including instellation rates more comparable to Earth in regions that have temperatures amenable to life.

A comprehensive semigray climate model

A climate model is developed for Earth climate history simulations or snapshots of possible conditions on Earthlike exoplanets. It includes estimates for shortwave and longwave optical thickness based on data from Venus, Earth, and Mars; expressions for atmospheric shortwave absorption and surface convective heat loss; climate feedbacks due to water vapor, ice-albedo, clouds, and lapse rate; and a new model for planetary and surface albedo which takes account of surface cover, Rayleigh scattering, and differing wavelength fractions due to primary spectral class. While somewhat complex, it is still orders of magnitude faster than full-spectrum methods or radiative-convective convergence. The model can be modified for use with tidally locked planets, and is here applied to Proxima Centauri b as an example.

An assessment of land energy balance over East Asia from multiple lines of evidence and the roles of the Tibet Plateau, aerosols, and clouds

Abstract. With high emissions of aerosols and the known world's “Third Pole” of the Tibet Plateau (TP) in East Asia, knowledge on the energy budget over this region has been widely concerned. This study first attempts to estimate the present-day land energy balance over East Asia by combining surface and satellite observations as well as the atmospheric reanalysis and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) simulations. Compared to the global land budget, a substantially larger fraction of atmospheric shortwave radiation of 5.2 % is reflected, highly associated with the higher aerosol loadings and more clouds over East Asian land. While a slightly smaller fraction of atmospheric shortwave absorption of 0.6 % is unexpectedly estimated, possibly related to the lower water vapor content effects due to the thinner air over the TP to overcompensate for the aerosol and cloud effects over East Asian land. The weaker greenhouse effect and fewer low clouds due to the TP are very likely the causes of the smaller fraction of East Asian land surface downward longwave radiation. Hence, high aerosol loadings, clouds, and the TP over East Asia play vital roles in the shortwave budgets, while the TP is responsible for the longwave budgets during this regional energy budget assessment. The further obtained cloud radiative effects suggest that the presence of clouds results in a larger cooling effect on the climate system over East Asian land than that over the globe. This study provides a perspective to understand fully the roles of potential factors in influencing the different energy budget assessments over regions.

A Strong Anthropogenic Black Carbon Forcing Constrained by Pollution Trends Over China

AbstractEstimates of the effective radiative forcing from aerosol‐radiation interaction (ERFari) of anthropogenic Black Carbon (BC) have been disputable and require better constraints. Here we find a substantial decline in atmospheric absorption of −5.79Wm−2decade−1 over eastern central China (ECC) responding to recent anthropogenic BC emission reductions. By combining the observational finding with advances from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase6 (CMIP6), we identify an emergent constraint on the ERFari of anthropogenic BC. We show that across CMIP6 models the simulated trends correlate well with simulated annual mean shortwave atmospheric absorption by anthropogenic BC over China. Making use of this emergent relationship allows us to constrain the aerosol absorption optical depth of anthropogenic BC and further provide a constrained range of 2.4–3.0 Wm−2 for its top‐of‐atmosphere ERFari over China, higher than existing estimates. Our work supports a strong warming effect of BC over China, and highlights the need to improve BC simulations over source regions.

The Dependence of Mean Climate State on Shortwave Absorption by Water Vapor

AbstractState-of-the-art climate models exhibit significant spread in the climatological value of atmospheric shortwave absorption (SWA). This study investigates both the possible causes and climatic impacts of this SWA intermodel spread. The intermodel spread of global-mean SWA largely originates from the intermodel difference in water vapor shortwave absorptivity. Hence, we alter the water vapor shortwave absorptivity in the Community Earth System Model, version 1, with the Community Atmosphere Model, version 4 (CESM1-CAM4). Increasing the water vapor shortwave absorptivity leads to a reduction in global-mean precipitation and a La Niña–like cooling over the tropical Pacific. The global-mean atmospheric energy budget suggests that the precipitation is suppressed as a way to compensate for the increased SWA. The precipitation reduction is driven by the weakened surface winds, stabilized planetary boundary layer, and surface cooling. The La Niña–like cooling over the tropical Pacific is attributed to the zonal asymmetry of climatological evaporative damping efficiency and the low cloud enhancement over the eastern basin. Complementary fixed SSTs simulations suggest that the latter is more fundamental and that it primarily arises from atmospheric processes. Consistent with our experiments, the CMIP5/6 models with a higher global-mean SWA tend to produce tropical Pacific toward a more La Niña–like mean state, highlighting the possible role of water vapor shortwave absorptivity for shaping the mean-state climate patterns.

Increased Variability of Biomass Burning Emissions in CMIP6 Amplifies Hydrologic Cycle in the CESM2 Large Ensemble

AbstractHistorical simulations performed for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 used biomass burning emissions between 1997 and 2014 containing higher spatial and temporal variability compared to emission inventories specified for earlier years, and compared to emissions used in previous (e.g., CMIP5) simulation intercomparisons. Using the Community Earth System Model version 2 Large Ensemble, we show this increased biomass burning emissions variability leads to amplification of the hydrologic cycle poleward of 40°N. Notably, the high variability of biomass burning emissions leads to increased latent heat fluxes, column‐integrated precipitable water, and precipitation. Greater ocean heat uptake, weaker meridional energy transport from the tropics, greater atmospheric shortwave and longwave absorption, and lower relative humidity act to moderate this hydrologic cycle amplification. Our results suggest it is not only the secular changes (on multidecadal timescales) in biomass burning emissions that impact the hydrologic cycle, but also the shorter timescale variability in emissions.

Mechanisms of tropical precipitation biases in climate models

We investigate the possible causes for inter-model spread in tropical zonal-mean precipitation pattern, which is divided into hemispherically symmetric and anti-symmetric modes via empirical orthogonal function analysis. The symmetric pattern characterizes the leading mode and is tightly related to the seasonal amplitude of maximum precipitation position. The energetic constraints link the symmetric pattern to the seasonal amplitude in cross-equatorial atmospheric energy transport $$ {\text{AET}}_{0} $$ and the annual-mean equatorial net energy input $$ {\text{NEI}}_{0} $$ . Decomposition of $$ {\text{AET}}_{0} $$ into the energetics variables indicates that the inter-model spread in symmetric precipitation pattern is correlated with the inter-model spread in clear-sky atmospheric shortwave absorption, which most likely arises due to differences in radiative transfer parameterizations rather than water vapor patterns. Among the components that consist $$ {\text{NEI}}_{0} $$ , the inter-model spread in symmetric precipitation pattern is mostly associated with the inter-model spread in net surface energy flux in the equatorial region, which is modulated by the strength of cooling by equatorial upwelling. Our results provide clues to understand the mechanism of tropical precipitation bias, thereby providing guidance for model improvements.

Hydrological Cycle Changes Explain Weak Snowball Earth Storm Track Despite Increased Surface Baroclinicity

AbstractSimulations show that storm tracks were weaker during past cold, icy climates relative to the modern climate despite increased surface baroclinicity. Previous work explained the weak North Atlantic storm track during the Last Glacial Maximum using dry zonally asymmetric mechanisms associated with orographic forcing. Here we show that zonally symmetric mechanisms associated with the hydrological cycle explain the weak Snowball Earth storm track. The weak storm track is consistent with the decreased meridional gradient of evaporation and atmospheric shortwave absorption and can be predicted following global mean cooling and the Clausius‐Clapeyron relation. The weak storm track is also consistent with decreased latent heat release aloft in the tropics, which decreases upper tropospheric baroclinicity and mean available potential energy. Overall, both hydrological cycle mechanisms are reflected in the significant correlation between storm track intensity and the meridional surface moist static energy gradient across a range of simulated climates between modern and Snowball Earth.

The global energy balance as represented in CMIP6 climate models

A plausible simulation of the global energy balance is a first-order requirement for a credible climate model. Here I investigate the representation of the global energy balance in 40 state-of-the-art global climate models participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6). In the CMIP6 multi-model mean, the magnitudes of the energy balance components are often in better agreement with recent reference estimates compared to earlier model generations on a global mean basis. However, the inter-model spread in the representation of many of the components remains substantial, often on the order of 10–20 Wm−2 globally, except for aspects of the shortwave clear-sky budgets, which are now more consistently simulated by the CMIP6 models. The substantial inter-model spread in the simulated global mean latent heat fluxes in the CMIP6 models, exceeding 20% (18 Wm−2), further implies also large discrepancies in their representation of the global water balance. From a historic perspective of model development over the past decades, the largest adjustments in the magnitudes of the simulated present-day global mean energy balance components occurred in the shortwave atmospheric clear-sky absorption and the surface downward longwave radiation. Both components were gradually adjusted upwards over several model generations, on the order of 10 Wm−2, to reach 73 and 344 Wm−2, respectively in the CMIP6 multi-model means. Thereby, CMIP6 has become the first model generation that largely remediates long-standing model deficiencies related to an overestimation in surface downward shortwave and compensational underestimation in downward longwave radiation in its multi-model mean.

Changes in atmospheric shortwave absorption as important driver of dimming and brightening

The amount of solar (shortwave) radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface underwent substantial variations over recent decades. Since the 1950s, surface shortwave radiation gradually decreased at widespread locations. In Europe, this so-called surface dimming continued until the late 1980s, when surface brightening set in and surface shortwave radiation increased again. In China, the dimming levelled off in the 1980s, but did not turn into brightening until 2005. Changes in clouds and aerosol are the prime potential causes for the phenomenon, but the scientific community has not yet reached a consensus about the relative role of the different potential forcing agents. Here we bring together co-located long-term observational data from surface and space to study decadal changes of the shortwave energy balance in Europe and China from 1985 to 2015. Within this observation-based framework, we show that an increasing net shortwave radiation at the top of the atmosphere and a decreasing atmospheric shortwave absorption each contribute roughly half of the observed brightening trends in Europe. For China, we find that the continued dimming until 2005 and the subsequent brightening occurred despite opposing trends in the top-of-the-atmosphere net shortwave radiation. This shows that changes in atmospheric shortwave absorption are a major driver of European brightening and the dominant cause for the Chinese surface trends. Although the observed variations cannot be attributed unambiguously, we discuss potential causes for the observed changes. Changes in the atmospheric absorption of shortwave radiation, probably through cloud and aerosol effects, is the main reason for the dimming and brightening over China and Europe in past decades, according to co-located surface and space observations.

The Annual Cycle of Fractional Atmospheric Shortwave Absorption in Observations and Models: Spatial Structure, Magnitude, and Timing

We use the best currently available in situ and satellite-derived surface and top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) shortwave radiation observations to explore climatological annual cycles of fractional (i.e., normalized by incoming radiation at the TOA) atmospheric shortwave absorption [Formula: see text] on a global scale. The analysis reveals that [Formula: see text] is a rather regional feature where the reported nonexisting [Formula: see text] in Europe is an exception rather than the rule. In several regions, large and distinctively different [Formula: see text] are apparent. The magnitudes of [Formula: see text] reach values up to 10% in some regions, which is substantial given that the long-term global mean atmospheric shortwave absorption is roughly 23%. Water vapor and aerosols are identified as major drivers for [Formula: see text] while clouds seem to play only a minor role for [Formula: see text]. Regions with large annual cycles in aerosol emissions from biomass burning also show the largest [Formula: see text]. As biomass burning is generally related to human activities, [Formula: see text] is likely also anthropogenically intensified or forced in the respective regions. We also test if climate models are able to simulate the observed pattern of [Formula: see text]. In regions where [Formula: see text] is driven by the annual cycle of natural aerosols or water vapor, the models perform well. In regions with large [Formula: see text] induced by biomass-burning aerosols, the models’ performance is very limited.

The cloud-free global energy balance and inferred cloud radiative effects: an assessment based on direct observations and climate models

In recent studies we quantified the global mean Earth energy balance based on direct observations from surface and space. Here we infer complementary reference estimates for its components specifically under cloud-free conditions. While the clear-sky fluxes at the top of atmosphere (TOA) are accurately known from satellite measurements, the corresponding fluxes at the Earth’s surface are not equally well established, as they cannot be directly measured from space. This is also evident in 38 global climate models from CMIP5, which are shown to greatly vary in their clear-sky surface radiation budgets. To better constrain the latter, we established new clear-sky reference climatologies of surface downward shortwave and longwave radiative fluxes from worldwide distributed Baseline Surface Radiation Network sites. 33 out of the 38 CMIP5 models overestimate the clear-sky downward shortwave reference climatologies, whereas both substantial overestimations and underestimations are found in the longwave counterparts in some of the models. From the bias structure of the CMIP5 models we infer best estimates for the global mean surface downward clear-sky shortwave and longwave radiation, at 247 and 314 Wm−2, respectively. With a global mean surface albedo of 13.5% and net shortwave clear-sky flux of 287 Wm−2 at the TOA this results in a global mean clear-sky surface and atmospheric shortwave absorption of 214 and 73 Wm−2, respectively. From the newly-established diagrams of the global energy balance under clear-sky and all-sky conditions, we quantify the cloud radiative effects not only at the TOA, but also within the atmosphere and at the surface.

The Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA) version 2017: a database for worldwide measured surface energy fluxes

Abstract. The Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA) is a database for the central storage of the worldwide measured energy fluxes at the Earth's surface, maintained at ETH Zurich (Switzerland). This paper documents the status of the GEBA version 2017 dataset, presents the new web interface and user access, and reviews the scientific impact that GEBA data had in various applications. GEBA has continuously been expanded and updated and contains in its 2017 version around 500 000 monthly mean entries of various surface energy balance components measured at 2500 locations. The database contains observations from 15 surface energy flux components, with the most widely measured quantity available in GEBA being the shortwave radiation incident at the Earth's surface (global radiation). Many of the historic records extend over several decades. GEBA contains monthly data from a variety of sources, namely from the World Radiation Data Centre (WRDC) in St. Petersburg, from national weather services, from different research networks (BSRN, ARM, SURFRAD), from peer-reviewed publications, project and data reports, and from personal communications. Quality checks are applied to test for gross errors in the dataset. GEBA has played a key role in various research applications, such as in the quantification of the global energy balance, in the discussion of the anomalous atmospheric shortwave absorption, and in the detection of multi-decadal variations in global radiation, known as global dimming and brightening. GEBA is further extensively used for the evaluation of climate models and satellite-derived surface flux products. On a more applied level, GEBA provides the basis for engineering applications in the context of solar power generation, water management, agricultural production and tourism. GEBA is publicly accessible through the internet via http://www.geba.ethz.ch. Supplementary data are available at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.873078.

Analytic radiative‐advective equilibrium as a model for high‐latitude climate

AbstractWe propose radiative‐advective equilibrium as a basic‐state model for the high‐latitude atmosphere. Temperature profiles are determined by a competition between stabilization by atmospheric shortwave absorption and advective heat flux convergence, and destabilization by surface shortwave absorption. We derive analytic expressions for temperature profiles, assuming power law atmospheric heating profiles as a function of pressure and two‐stream windowed‐gray longwave radiative transfer. We discuss example profiles with and without an atmospheric window and show that the sensitivity of surface temperature to forcing depends on the nature of the forcing, with greatest sensitivity to radiative forcing by increased optical thickness and least sensitivity to increased atmospheric heat transport. These differences in sensitivity of surface temperature to forcing can be explained in terms of a forcing‐dependent lapse‐rate feedback.

Origins of climate model discrepancies in atmospheric shortwave absorption and global precipitation changes

Projected increases in mean precipitation are constrained by the atmospheric energy budget through radiative-convective equilibrium. However, significant differences persist between climate models on the rate of increase in precipitation per unit warming, mostly arising from the clear-sky radiative response. While the intermodel spread in clear-sky longwave cooling has been explained by climate feedbacks, the sources of spread in clear-sky shortwave heating are still unclear. This article focuses on the latter. Since water vapor contributes most of the atmospheric shortwave absorption, both intermodel differences in its spatial distribution and in radiative transfer parameterizations are plausible hypotheses for the spread. This work reestablishes the primary contribution from water vapor relative to other shortwave-absorbing species and evaluates the validity of both hypotheses. It is found that the intermodel spread in shortwave absorption change most likely originates from the radiation schemes, possibly because of simplifications induced by their low spectral resolutions.

Cloud‐radiative driving of the Madden‐Julian oscillation as seen by the A‐Train

AbstractCloud and water vapor radiative heating anomalies associated with convection may be an effective source of moist static energy driving the Madden‐Julian Oscillation (MJO). In this paper 5 years of radiative heating profiles derived from CloudSat radar and Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation data are analyzed to document radiative heating anomalies during the MJO. Atmospheric shortwave absorption and surface longwave radiation anomalies are of opposite sign and 10–20% as large as top‐of‐atmosphere outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) anomalies, confirming that OLR provides a useful estimate of the total column radiative heating anomaly. Positive anomalies generally peak about 1 week before the MJO peak and are smallest over the Indian Ocean. Anomalies over the Maritime Continent are strongest and coincident with the MJO peak. Shortwave heating profile anomalies are weaker than longwave anomalies in the active region of the MJO but generally of opposite sign; thus, shortwave heating damps the longwave destabilization of the lower troposphere. The exception is the onset phase of the MJO, where shortwave and longwave heating anomalies due to thin cirrus are both positive in the upper troposphere and exert a stabilizing influence. Specific humidity anomalies in the middle troposphere reach 0.5 g kg−1, but the associated clear‐sky heating anomaly is small. Radiative enhancement of column moist static energy becomes significant as precipitation increases before the MJO peak and remains high after the MJO peak as precipitation begins to decline. Elevated radiative heating after the peak may contribute to destabilizing the MJO.

Atmospheric tar balls: aged primary droplets from biomass burning?

Abstract. Atmospheric tar balls are particles of special morphology and composition that are fairly abundant in the plumes of biomass smoke. These particles form a specific subset of brown carbon (BrC) which has been shown to play a significant role in atmospheric shortwave absorption and, by extension, climate forcing. Here we suggest that tar balls are produced by the direct emission of liquid tar droplets followed by heat transformation upon biomass burning. For the first time in atmospheric chemistry we generated tar-ball particles from liquid tar obtained previously by dry distillation of wood in an all-glass apparatus in the laboratory with the total exclusion of flame processes. The particles were perfectly spherical with a mean optical diameter of 300 nm, refractory, externally mixed, and homogeneous in the contrast of the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images. They lacked any graphene-like microstructure and exhibited a mean carbon-to-oxygen ratio of 10. All of the observed characteristics of laboratory-generated particles were very similar to those reported for atmospheric tar-ball particles in the literature, strongly supporting our hypothesis regarding the formation mechanism of atmospheric tar-ball particles.

The cloud radiative effect on the atmospheric energy budget and global mean precipitation

This study seeks to explain the effects of cloud on changes in atmospheric radiative absorption that largely balance changes in global mean precipitation under climate change. The partial radiative perturbations (PRPs) due to changes in cloud and due to the effects of the pre-existing climatological cloud distribution on non-cloud changes, known as “cloud masking”, are calculated when atmospheric CO2 concentration is doubled for the HadSM3 and MIROC models and for a large ensemble of parameter perturbed models based on HadSM3. Because the effect of cloud on changes in atmospheric shortwave absorption is almost negligible, longwave fluxes are analysed alone. We find that the net effects of cloud masking and cloud PRP on atmospheric absorption are both substantial. For the tropics, our results are reviewed in light of hypotheses put forward to explain cloud and radiative flux changes. We find that the major effects of clouds on radiation change are linked to known physical processes that are quite consistently simulated by models. Cloud top height changes are quite well described by the fixed anvil temperature hypothesis of Hartmann and Larson; cloud base heights change little, remaining near the same pressure. Changes in cloud geographical location and cloud amount are significant, but play a smaller role in driving radiative flux changes. Finally, because clouds are a large source of modelling uncertainty, we consider whether resolving errors in cloud simulation could reconcile modelled global mean precipitation trends of about 1–3 %\(\hbox {K}^{-1}\) with some estimates of observed trends of 7 %\(\hbox {K}^{-1}\) or more. This would require the radiative effect of clouds to change from one that increases atmospheric radiative absorption by about \(0.5\,\hbox {Wm}^{-2}\,\hbox {K}^{-1}\) to one that decreases it by \(-3.5\,\hbox {Wm}^{-2}\,\hbox {K}^{-1}\). Based on our results, this seems difficult to achieve within our current rationale for the tropics at least.

The Seasonal Cycle of Atmospheric Heating and Temperature

Abstract The seasonal cycle of the heating of the atmosphere is divided into a component due to direct solar absorption in the atmosphere and a component due to the flux of energy from the surface to the atmosphere via latent, sensible, and radiative heat fluxes. Both observations and coupled climate models are analyzed. The vast majority of the seasonal heating of the northern extratropics (78% in the observations and 67% in the model average) is due to atmospheric shortwave absorption. In the southern extratropics, the seasonal heating of the atmosphere is entirely due to atmospheric shortwave absorption in both the observations and the models, and the surface heat flux opposes the seasonal heating of the atmosphere. The seasonal cycle of atmospheric temperature is surface amplified in the northern extratropics and nearly barotropic in the Southern Hemisphere; in both cases, the vertical profile of temperature reflects the source of the seasonal heating. In the northern extratropics, the seasonal cycle of atmospheric heating over land differs markedly from that over the ocean. Over the land, the surface energy fluxes complement the driving absorbed shortwave flux; over the ocean, they oppose the absorbed shortwave flux. This gives rise to large seasonal differences in the temperature of the atmosphere over land and ocean. Downgradient temperature advection by the mean westerly winds damps the seasonal cycle of heating of the atmosphere over the land and amplifies it over the ocean. The seasonal cycle in the zonal energy transport is 4.1 PW. Finally, the authors examine the change in the seasonal cycle of atmospheric heating in 11 models from phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) due to a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide from preindustrial concentrations. The seasonal heating of the troposphere is everywhere enhanced by increased shortwave absorption by water vapor; it is reduced where sea ice has been replaced by ocean, which increases the effective heat storage reservoir of the climate system and thereby reduces the seasonal magnitude of energy fluxes between the surface and the atmosphere. As a result, the seasonal amplitude of temperature increases in the upper troposphere (where atmospheric shortwave absorption increases) and decreases at the surface (where the ice melts).

A new method to diagnose the contribution of anthropogenic activities to temperature: temperature tagging

Abstract. This study presents a new methodology, called temperature tagging. It keeps track of the contributions of individual processes to temperature within a climate model simulation. As a first step and as a test bed, a simple box climate model is regarded. The model consists of an atmosphere, which absorbs and emits radiation, and of a surface, which reflects, absorbs and emits radiation. The tagging methodology is used to investigate the impact of the atmosphere on surface temperature. Four processes are investigated in more detail and their contribution to the surface temperature quantified: (i) shortwave influx and shortwave atmospheric absorption ("sw"), (ii) longwave atmospheric absorption due to non-CO2 greenhouse gases ("nC"), (iii) due to a base case CO2 concentration ("bC"), and (iv) due to an enhanced CO2 concentration ("eC"). The differential equation for the temperature in the box climate model is decomposed into four equations for the tagged temperatures. This method is applied to investigate the contribution of longwave absorption to the surface temperature (greenhouse effect), which is calculated to be 68 K. This estimate contrasts an alternative calculation of the greenhouse effect of slightly more than 30 K based on the difference of the surface temperature with and without an atmosphere. The difference of the two estimates is due to a shortwave cooling effect and a reduced contribution of the shortwave to the total downward flux: the shortwave absorption of the atmosphere results in a reduced net shortwave flux at the surface of 192 W m−2, leading to a cooling of the surface by 14 K. Introducing an atmosphere results in a downward longwave flux at the surface due to atmospheric absorption of 189 W m−2, which roughly equals the net shortwave flux of 192 W m−2. This longwave flux is a result of both the radiation due to atmospheric temperatures and its longwave absorption. Hence the longwave absorption roughly accounts for 91 W m−2 out of a total of 381 W m−2 (roughly 25%) and therefore accounts for a temperature change of 68 K. In a second experiment, the CO2 concentration is doubled, which leads to an increase in surface temperature of 1.2 K, resulting from a temperature increase due to CO2 of 1.9 K, due to non-CO2 greenhouse gases of 0.6 K and a cooling of 1.3 K due to a reduced importance of the solar heating for the surface and atmospheric temperatures. These two experiments show the feasibility of temperature tagging and its potential as a diagnostic for climate simulations.