Short Sea Shipping Research Articles

Environmental and Cost Assessments of Marine Alternative Fuels for Fully Autonomous Short-Sea Shipping Vessels Based on the Global Warming Potential Approach

This research paper presents an effective approach to reducing marine pollution and costs by determining the optimal marine alternative fuels framework for short-sea shipping vessels, with a focus on energy efficiency. Employing mathematical models in a Python environment, the analyses are tailored specifically for conventional and fully autonomous high-speed passenger ferries (HSPFs) and tugboats, utilizing bottom-up methodologies, ship operating phases, and the global warming potential approach. The study aims to identify the optimal marine fuel that offers the highest Net Present Value (NPV) and minimal emissions, aligning with International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations and environmental objectives. Data from the ship’s Automatic Identification System (AIS), along with specifications and port information, were integrated to assess power, energy, and fuel consumption, incorporating parameters of proposed marine alternative fuels. This study examines key performance indicators (KPIs) for marine alternative fuels used in both conventional and autonomous vessels, specifically analyzing total mass emission rate (TMER), total global warming potential (TGWP), total environmental impact (TEI), total environmental damage cost (TEDC), and NPV. The results show that hydrogen (H2-Ren, H2-F) fuels and electric options produce zero emissions, while traditional fuels like HFO and MDO exhibit the highest TMER. Sensitivity and stochastic analyses identify critical input variables affecting NPV, such as fuel costs, emission costs, and vessel speed. Findings indicate that LNG consistently yields the highest NPV, particularly for autonomous vessels, suggesting economic advantages and reduced emissions. These insights are crucial for optimizing fuel selection and operational strategies in marine transportation and offer valuable guidance for decision-making and investment in the marine sector, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental sustainability.

A ferry route in the Skagerrak optimised via VISIR-2

Abstract Urgent measures are needed for the shipping industry to contribute proportionately to climate change mitigation. To date, the potential of weather routing has not been reproducibly assessed, especially for short sea shipping. We employ the open-source VISIR-2 model on a ferry passage in the Skagerrak (the strait among Norway, Sweden, and Denmark), considering both sea currents and waves. By computing 5,840 least-CO2 optimal routes for 2023, we find promising results, particularly for voyages from Denmark. The savings follow a bi-exponential distribution, with over 10% CO2 emissions savings achievable on about ten days per year. Specifically, the Norwegian coastal current can be harnessed to enhance speed over ground and reduce overall emissions. The vessel performance curve needs to be tailored to specific ships in service, and the optimisation algorithm should be developed to enable just-in-time arrivals.

Approaching zero emissions in ports: implementation of batteries and supercapacitors with smart energy management in hybrid ships

The urgent need to reduce energy consumption and environmental impact in the shipping industry has prompted research and industry to explore new solutions for minimizing fuel usage. This study examines the potential effects and benefits of integrating electrical energy storage systems, such as lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors, into short sea shipping ships during port stay. Specifically, a novel dynamic simulation tool is developed to conduct suitable analyses that investigate the feasibility of charging electrical storage systems while at navigation and utilizing them as alternatives to traditional diesel generators while in port. The analysis reveals that lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors are effective tools for reducing pollutant emissions by minimizing diesel generator usage during port stopovers, resulting in a significant reduction in fuel consumption from 1.148 kt/year to 0.511 kt/year. Moreover, under identical conditions, the use of supercapacitors increases the lifespan of batteries from 10.6 years to 11.9 years. Additionally, there is a 55 % reduction in carbon dioxide emissions during port stays, decreasing from 2.98 kt/year to 1.64 kt/year.

Effect of fuel prices on sailing speeds in short-sea shipping

ABSTRACT In this paper, we estimate fuel price elasticities of sailing speed for general cargo vessels using data covering the Baltic Sea and Norwegian coastal areas during the years 2007–2018. To disentangle the correlation between fuel prices and freight rates arising from changes in global demand, we instrument fuel prices on price changes triggered by supply shocks. The shocks are derived from the structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model proposed by Kilian (2009). In a sensitivity analysis, we use unanticipated oil supply shocks derived from oil supply outages as an alternative instrument for fuel prices. We find that disregarding the correlation between fuel prices and freight rates yields biased parameter estimates, which can partly explain the mixed results in the previous literature. Our preferred estimate for the fuel price elasticity of speed is −0.08.

Short Sea Shipping as a Sustainable Modal Alternative: Qualitative and Quantitative Perspectives

This study investigated the possibility of using short sea shipping (SSS) as a sustainable freight modal alternative by analyzing data collected from shippers in the New York State Capital Region. To this end, qualitative and quantitative approaches were jointly used. The qualitative analysis focused on exploring in-depth interviews with the decision makers regarding the drivers and the barriers to firms shifting to SSS. The quantitative efforts included estimating discrete choice (ordinal logit) models to assess the influence of four key governing aspects (leadership buy-in, emergency logistics, public policy, and sustainability) on the probabilities of shifting to SSS supported by the findings from the qualitative part. This paper also includes a comprehensive description of various variables, factors influencing the current mode choice, shippers’ perceptions, and willingness to use SSS. The results showed that firms with higher truck shares had fewer chances to switch to SSS unless in emergencies. Unfortunately, sustainability was the least valued by most of the participants in choosing SSS. Hence, lower costs and better service were essential. The ordinal logit models provide a potential tool for policymakers and freight planners to estimate the probability of firms choosing SSS over the current mode.

Simulation-based evaluation of concepts for short sea shipping of green hydrogen

In this study, a simulation-based approach is applied to develop concepts for short sea shipping of green hydrogen and to assess their overall energy efficiency. The study is conducted as a case study involving production of green hydrogen at an offshore site in the North Sea. Hydrogen produced at the site is first transported by pipeline to a port-based intermediate storage facility, from where it is transported onwards by ship. For the onward transport, four different hydrogen carriers are considered, namely compressed hydrogen, liquid hydrogen, ammonia, and a liquid organic hydrogen carrier.

Quay-to-quay mission with autonomous docking: a model-scale experimental validation

Transport of cargo by short-sea shipping is at the forefront of the European Union's transportation policy. It has the promise to alleviate congested land transport and decrease pollution [European Commission. 2021. Putting European transport on track for the future]. However, the shortage of qualified personnel might impede this solution. Autonomous sailing of ships could help, especially if the whole trip is automated. In this study a control system is designed that is capable of sailing a round-trip with a model-scale feeder vessel in Marin's Seakeeping and Manoeuvring Basin. The Guidance-Navigation-Control framework is used to sail this journey with attention given to smooth switching between the operational modes. A set of experiments is conducted to validate the controller and identify crucial parts in the operation. The experiments showed that the controlled vessel can sail a round-trip with different levels of waves and wind disturbances coming from different directions. Furthermore, the round-trip can be modified such that the approach angle to the quay changes and the ship still successfully docks at the quay. It was found that the approach to the quay is most difficult during transition from high to low speed, when the bow thrusters have yet to become effective, and a large change in course is needed. This can be circumvented by changing the trajectory to the quay to have a longer straight approach, or it can be corrected when the bow thrusters become active.

Short Sea Shipping in the Age of Sustainability, Autonomous Navigation and Digitalization

This paper presents the comprehensive state-of-the-art on the challenges that short sea shipping currently faces across the world. The concept and its relationship with coastal shipping are introduced, followed by a review of the EU policies for short sea shipping and its practical impacts in modal split. A survey of the literature on the strong and weak points of this form of transportation is carried out, aimed at explaining the difficulties in achieving relevant modal shifts from road to sea. The experience with short sea shipping across the world is described and discussed, providing a global perspective. The paper then discusses the main challenges and opportunities in this field, namely decarbonisation, autonomous navigation, and digitalization. Conclusions are drawn on the possible impact of these game changing developments in this segment of the shipping industry.

A 3D World Interpreter System for Safe Autonomous Crane Operation

In an effort to improve short-sea shipping in Europe, we present a 3D world interpreter (3DWI) system as part of a robotic container-handling system. The 3DWI is an advanced sensor suite combined with AI-based software and the communication infrastructure to connect to both the crane control and the shore control center. On input of LiDAR data and stereo captures, the 3DWI builds a world model of the operating environment and detects containers. The 3DWI and crane control are the core of an autonomously operating crane that monitors the environment and may trigger an emergency stop while alerting the remote operator of the danger. During container handling, the 3DWI scans for human activity and continuously updates a 3D-Twin model for the operator, enabling situational awareness. The presented methodology includes the sensor suite design, creation of the world model and the 3D-Twin, innovations in AI-detection software, and interaction with the crane and operator. Supporting experiments quantify the performance of the 3DWI, its AI detectors, and safety measures; the detectors reach the top of VisDrone’s leaderboard and the pilot tests show the safe autonomous operation of the crane.

Environmental-economic sustainability of hydrogen and ammonia fuels for short sea shipping operations

Alternative fuels of low or zero carbon content can decarbonise the shipping operations. This study aims at assessing the lifetime environmental-economic sustainability of ammonia and hydrogen, as alternatives to diesel fuel for short sea shipping cargo vessels. A model is employed to calculate key performance indicators representing the lifetime financial sustainability and environmental footprint of the case ship using a realistic operating profile and considering several scenarios with different diesel substitution rates. Scenarios meeting the carbon emissions reduction targets set by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) for 2030 are identified, whereas policy measures for their implementation including the emissions taxation are discussed. The derived results demonstrate that the future implementation of carbon emissions taxation in the ranges of 136–965 €/t for hydrogen and 356–2647 €/t for ammonia can support these fuels financial sustainability in shipping. This study provides insights for adopting zero-carbon fuels, and as such impacts the de-risking of shipping decarbonisation.

GIS-based analysis of the spatial distribution of CO2 emissions and slow steaming effectiveness in coastal shipping

The sustainability of maritime activities is increasingly gaining interest, with the shipping sector actively focusing on decarbonization efforts. Throughout the years, researchers have considered slow steaming for improving the environmental footprint of maritime networks. In order to assess such strategies’ effectiveness on existing emissions, research also focuses on the accurate estimation of emission inventories. However, there is a significant gap concerning both fields when considering short-sea shipping, especially passenger shipping. Furthermore, while emissions are characterized by spatial aspects in several studies, there is an apparent gap in considering such aspects for detailed analysis purposes rather than only for visualization purposes. In this study, the Greek Coastal Shipping Network (GCSN) is considered, with its emissions estimated using a top-down method, creating a spatial emission inventory used for further spatial analysis for accurate identification of highly polluted areas. Results indicate that ship emissions do not spread homogeneously throughout the GCSN and that targeted interventions are necessary in several areas of the network. The effectiveness of spatially related slow steaming implementations is evaluated and compared with their implementation on the whole network. The study highlights the need for additional future emission mitigation strategies, such as service optimization, network restructuring, continuous emission monitoring, and fleet renewal with more environmentally efficient ships. The study’s aim is to fill the research gap regarding the environmental assessment of passenger shipping and the effects of slow steaming on such networks while presenting an adaptable GIS-based decision support system for enhanced decision-making regarding the environmental efficiency of maritime networks.

Solar photovoltaic systems for the Short Sea Shipping’s compliance with decarbonization regulations in the European Union

Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) regulation came into force In January 2023 as one of the main International Maritime Organization’s measures to reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG). Short Sea Shipping (SSS) demand significant electricity supply by reaching up to 30% of total on-board power. This paper addresses SSS-fleet compliance with CII regulation, Market and Goal-Based Measures imposed by the European Union (EU) through solar photovoltaic systems (PV) for on-board electricity production. The paper analyses the techno-economic feasibility of this solution from the shipowners’ standpoint in the medium-term. To meet this aim, a SSS Car-carrier between Canary Islands and Iberian Peninsula is assessed by simulating PV performance, vessel’s technical implications, and economic consequences of GHG mitigation in the context of the EU. The results reveal that PV reduces fuel consumption for electricity generation by 15.5% by reducing the total CO2 emissions by 3.38%. Although this improvement is not substantial enough to change the CII score of the vessel, the Internal Rate of Return of the PV investment achieved 55% for 10 years with three years as payback period. This fact along with the robustness of the results achieved suggest PV system is a promising mitigation option for SSS vessels.

Carbon abatement costs for renewable fuels in hard-to-abate transport sectors

Renewable fuels can help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. To inform planning decisions, this paper estimates carbon abatement costs of replacing fossil fuels with renewable hydrogen, ammonia, or Fischer–Tropsch e-fuel in Norwegian freight transport across long-haul trucking, short-sea shipping, and medium-haul aviation. We do this by applying a holistic cost model of renewable fuel value chains. We compare abatement costs across transport sectors and analyze how policy interventions along the value chains – such as carbon pricing, subsidies, and de-risking policies – impact carbon abatement costs. We estimate abatement costs of 793–1,598 €/tCO2 in 2020 and -11–675 €/tCO2 in 2050, depending on the electricity source, transport sector, and type of fuel. A 1 €/kg reduction in the cost of hydrogen - e.g. through a subsidy - lowers present-day carbon abatement cost by 95 €/tCO2 for hydrogen-powered trucking, 133 €/tCO2 for e-fuel-powered shipping, and 143 €/tCO2 for e-fuel-powered aviation. We further show that reductions in the weighted average cost of capital materially decrease abatement cost, particularly for renewable hydrogen due to its relative capital intensity.

Assessing the emissions of short sea international shipping: a case study of the Mytilini–Ayvalik route

Short sea shipping involves transporting passengers and cargo between European ports and coastal countries bordering Europe on enclosed seas. Challenges include aging fleets and environmental concerns, but efforts to reduce emissions are in progress through the use of low-sulfur fuels, hybrid and electric vessels, and improved energy efficiency. This study focuses on emissions from international short shipping routes between Mytilini and Ayvalik, using standardized emission factors to calculate CO2, SO2, NOx, PM, and HC emissions. The research aims to bridge knowledge gaps and provide insights into these emissions, identifying the main commercial ships on the route, analyzing their emissions, and discussing the findings. Overall, six ships completed the route, consuming an average of 60 L of fuel per hour per 100 HP, depending on factors like speed and total load. Notably, NOx emissions are the highest, followed by sulfur oxides, with values exceeding 12.9 and 3.5 tons, respectively. As anticipated, cruising is the shipping practice with the highest energy footprint, amounting to 695 MWh. An essential discovery is that hoteling plays a significant role in energy consumption and emissions, accounting for 152 MWh out of the total 881 MWh consumed across all shipping practices. The potential adoption of hydrogen as a fuel holds the promise of substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, enhancements in air quality, and noise pollution mitigation.

Evaluation of an autonomous, short sea shipping feeder-loop service through advanced simulations

Traditionally, container-freight being shipped from central Europe to the coast of Norway has been transported either by road, or by larger containerships to central ports. For the past 3 years the AEGIS consortium has worked to develop a new, disruptive short sea shipping feeder-loop service based on mother and daughter ships [1]. The hypothesis is that introducing smaller, autonomous, battery-powered vessels into the fjords of Norway would open new business areas, provide access to remote regions, and allow shipping companies to take on cargo that could not previously be transported by water. Such a transport system has the potential of reducing cost, GHG emissions and external costs, while increasing frequency of service and the waterborne cargo volume in Europe. One of the main challenges of the mother-daughter logistic system is how transshipment affects defined key performance indicators (KPIs), especially in terms of cost. For this purpose, the SIMPACT tool [2] was developed in the H2020 projects AEGIS and AUTOSHIP. The tool allows for rapid iterations of maritime logistic systems through discrete event scheduling, and estimation of energy, fuel, emission, and cost.This paper will present results from a case-study on two different daughter ship concepts. The concepts are evaluated through cost and environmental KPIs presented in [1], in addition to external costs based on the European handbook on the external costs of transport [3].Results from the case-studies indicate that transport systems including green daughter-vessels have the potential of being cost competitive and would lower externalities compared to the baseline truck transportation system.

A multimodel evaluation of the potential impact of shipping on particle species in the Mediterranean Sea

Abstract. Shipping contributes significantly to air pollutant emissions and atmospheric particulate matter (PM) concentrations. At the same time, worldwide maritime transport volumes are expected to continue to rise in the future. The Mediterranean Sea is a major short-sea shipping route within Europe and is the main shipping route between Europe and East Asia. As a result, it is a heavily trafficked shipping area, and air quality monitoring stations in numerous cities along the Mediterranean coast have detected high levels of air pollutants originating from shipping emissions. The current study is a part of the EU Horizon 2020 project SCIPPER (Shipping Contributions to Inland Pollution – Push for the Enforcement of Regulations), which intends to investigate how existing restrictions on shipping-related emissions to the atmosphere ensure compliance with legislation. To demonstrate the impact of ships on relatively large scales, the potential shipping impacts on various air pollutants can be simulated with chemical transport models. To determine the formation, transport, chemical transformation, and fate of particulate matter < 2.5 µm (PM2.5) in the Mediterranean Sea in 2015, five different regional chemical transport models (CAMx – Comprehensive Air Quality Model with Extensions, CHIMERE, CMAQ – Community Multiscale Air Quality model, EMEP – European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme model, and LOTOS-EUROS) were applied. Furthermore, PM2.5 precursors (ammonia (NH3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric acid (HNO3)) and inorganic particle species (sulfate (SO42-), ammonia (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-)) were studied, as they are important for explaining differences among the models. STEAM (see “List of abbreviations” in Appendix A) version 3.3.0 was used to compute shipping emissions, and the CAMS-REG version 2.2.1 dataset was used to calculate land-based emissions for an area encompassing the Mediterranean Sea at a resolution of 12 × 12 km2 (or 0.1∘ × 0.1∘). For additional input, like meteorological fields and boundary conditions, all models utilized their regular configuration. The zero-out approach was used to quantify the potential impact of ship emissions on PM2.5 concentrations. The model results were compared with observed background data from monitoring sites. Four of the five models underestimated the actual measured PM2.5 concentrations. These underestimations are linked to model-specific mechanisms or underpredictions of particle precursors. The potential impact of ships on the PM2.5 concentration is between 15 % and 25 % at the main shipping routes. Regarding particle species, SO42- is the main contributor to the absolute ship-related PM2.5 and to total PM2.5 concentrations. In the ship-related PM2.5, a higher share of inorganic particle species can be found when compared with the total PM2.5. The seasonal variabilities in particle species show that NO3- is higher in winter and spring, while the NH4+ concentrations displayed no clear seasonal pattern in any models. In most cases with high concentrations of both NH4+ and NO3-, lower SO42- concentrations are simulated. Differences among the simulated particle species distributions might be traced back to the aerosol size distribution and how models distribute emissions between the coarse and fine modes (PM2.5 and PM10). The seasonality of wet deposition follows the seasonality of the precipitation, showing that precipitation predominates wet deposition.

Seeking new strategic options for promotion of intermodal transport in perishables: The use of short sea shipping

The objective of this study is to find new options for the promotion of intermodality, based on short sea shipping, as applied to perishable products. At present, most of the transport is carried out by refrigerated trucks. In theory, this change would have positive effects on the environment and could even reduce transit costs, but companies are still hesitant to implement this practice. In this context, the present study aims to determine whether there are aspects other than operational considerations (e.g., time, cost, quality or environmental concerns) that condition modal shift. First, a literature review is conducted which attempts to identify both the strengths and weaknesses of intermodality in perishable transport. This review serves as the basis for the elaboration of a questionnaire targeting transport actors within the fruit and vegetable supply chain in southeastern Spain – the area taken as an application example. Next, the survey is used to determine the possible drivers that would favor a modal shift applying a structural equation analysis, corroborated with a traditional econometric model. As a result, the design of an overall strategy based on the creation of redistribution hubs at destination (i.e., located at ports), whose operations could be optimized through the digitization of the supply chain, appears to be a promising approach.

Renewable hydrogen and synthetic fuels versus fossil fuels for trucking, shipping and aviation: A holistic cost model

Potential carbon neutrality of the global trucking, shipping and aviation sectors by 2050 could be achieved by substituting fossil fuels with renewable hydrogen and synthetic fuels. To investigate the economic impact of fuel substitution over time, a holistic cost model is developed and applied to three case studies in Norway, an early adopter of carbon-neutral freight transport. The model covers the value chains from local electricity and fuel production (hydrogen, ammonia, Fischer–Tropsch e-fuel) to fuel consumption for long-haul trucking, short-sea shipping and mid-haul aviation. The estimates are internally consistent and allow cross-mode and cross-fuel comparisons that set this work apart from previous studies more narrowly focused on a given transport mode or fuel. The model contains 150 techno-economic parameters to identify which components along the value chains drive levelized costs. This paper finds a cost reduction potential for renewable fuels of 41% to 68% until 2050, but carbon-neutral transport will suffer asymmetric cost disadvantages. Fuel substitution is most expensive in short-sea shipping, followed by mid-haul aviation and long-haul trucking. Cost developments of electricity, direct air capture of carbon, vehicle expenses, and fuel-related payload losses are significant drivers.

Changes in external costs and infrastructure costs due to modal shift in freight transport in North-western Europe

Modal shift in freight transport entails moving freight from road to rail, inland waterways, and short sea shipping. In current Dutch and European freight transport policy, modal shift is foreseen to play an important role to mitigate external effects of freight transport. Policy efforts on modal shift are legitimate because the size of the external costs of freight transport are considerable. But can modal shift policies also be effective? In other words, can policy efforts on modal shift result in a decrease of external costs and infrastructure costs due to freight transport? Our research approach falls apart into three steps. In the first step we analyse the transported weight by road on four international freight corridors in North-western Europe that could be transported against at least 10% lower private costs by rail or inland waterways. The share of road transport (transported weight) on the corridors in total road transport in the Netherlands is about 10%. The weight of the cargo that could potentially be shifted on the basis of the transport cost criterium is called the modal shift potential (MSP). We estimate the MSP for the base year 2018 and for the future year 2050. Also in this step, we translate the MSP into changes in transport performance per transport mode. In the second step we determine differences in external costs and user dependent infrastructure costs per unit of transport performance (tonkm) between the transport modes road, rail, and inland waterways. The following external effects are included: greenhouse gas emissions (tank-to-wheel), air pollutant emissions (tank-to-wheel), noise, traffic accidents, congestion, and emissions from fuel and electricity production (well-to-tank) for freight vehicles. Including all these effects, we take a more integral approach than existing studies on the effect of modal shift on the external costs of freight transport. In the third step, we combine the results of steps 1 and 2 and calculate the changes in external costs and infrastructure costs that result from the MSP’s. We find MSP’s of between 35 and 55%, depending on the market segment (container, or non-container transport, and year). These percentages may seem substantial, but we emphasize that on the freight transport corridors rail and inland waterways are (very) competitive to road. Estimates for the decrease in external- and user dependent infrastructure costs if the MSP’s are fully realized point to reductions of €67 million to €150 million for the Netherlands, and €87 million to €136 million abroad for 2018 (considering all countries through which the corridors pass). We emphasize that these are maximum annual savings which can only be achieved if all non-transport cost obstacles for modal shift can be removed. For 2050 estimating a maximum and minimum for the change in external- and infrastructure costs is impossible due to uncertainties in the development of the transport costs and the external costs of freight transport. Because for the year 2018 the MSP’s result in a decrease of external costs and infrastructure costs from freight transport on the corridors, we conclude that in the coming years policy efforts on modal shift can be effective. We can however not conclude anything about the efficiency: are the benefits of policy efforts on modal shift larger than the costs? If that is not the case, taking modal shift measures can eventually not be justified from an economic welfare point of view.

Decarbonization of Short Sea Shipping in European Union: Impact of market and goal based measures

In July 2021, the European Union (EU) published a package of measures for the decarbonization of maritime transport: Market Based Measures (MBM) and Goal Based Measures (GBM) that will gradually be phased in over 2023. The measures derive from an EU decision taken independently of the International Maritime Organization. This fragmentation of maritime transport governance leads to new working scenarios in the EU that have given rise to concern in the shipping industry. This paper analyzes the monetary consequences of EU decarbonization regulation on Short Sea Shipping (SSS) by introducing a mathematical model to meet this aim. From the application of this model to SSS container vessel operating between the Canary Islands and the Iberian Peninsula, it is found that, although MBM accurately reflect the pollutant impact of SSS vessels in the aftermath of the 2020 Global Sulphur Cap, only GBM along with non-compliance deterrents can redirect the vessels’ investments towards more sustainable solutions in the medium-term.