Short-chain Saturated Fatty Acids Research Articles

Investigation of fraud in the production of butter: a forensic case study of criminal association

Butter is among the most popular and commercially valuable dairy products. Its high commercial value makes it a major target for adulteration, which aims to reduce production costs by using lower-quality fats and oils from other sources. The annual global market is around USD 30 billion (2023), expected to reach USD 36 billion in 2028, which also justifies the enormous interest in adulteration. In this work, a confirmed case of butter adulteration was studied by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Stable Carbon Isotopic Ratio Analysis (SCIRA) techniques, employed to detect the inclusion in butter production of vegetable oils, such as soybean and palm oils. A total of 21 samples seized by the Brazilian Federal Police were analysed by NMR and SCIR, and compared to original butter obtained from commercial sources. The composition of all the seized samples was a mixture of butter (dairy fat of animal origin) with fat of vegetable origin (soybean and palm oil) and did not contain milk as a major component. While NMR was an unequivocal choice to discriminate the chemical composition of food samples, identifying the short-chain saturated fatty acids present in milk fat, including the butyryl alkyl chain, SCIRA was able to discriminate the origin of fat present in the butter samples as C3 sources, such as palm vegetable oils.

Metabolomic Disparities in Intraocular Fluid Across Varied Stages of Cataract Progression: Implications for the Analysis of Cataract Development.

Introduction: The lens's metabolic demands are met through a continuous circulation of aqueous humor, encompassing a spectrum of components such as organic and inorganic ions, carbohydrates, glutathione, urea, amino acids, proteins, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water. Metabolomics is a pivotal tool, offering an initial insight into the complexities of integrated metabolism. In this investigative study, we systematically scrutinize the composition of intraocular fluid in individuals afflicted with cataracts. Methods: The investigation involved a comprehensive analysis of aqueous humor samples from a cohort comprising 192 patients. These individuals were stratified by utilizing the SPONCS classification system, delineating distinct groups characterized by the hardness of cataracts. The analytical approach employed targeted quantitative metabolite analysis using HILIC-based liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometric detection. The metabolomics data analysis was performed with MetaboAnalyst 5.0. Results: The results of the enrichment analysis have facilitated the inference that the discerned disparities among groups arise from disruptions in taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, variations in tryptophan metabolism, and modifications in mitochondrial beta-oxidation of short-chain saturated fatty acids and pyrimidine metabolism. Conclusion: A decline in taurine concentration precipitates diminished glutathione activity, prompting an elevated requirement for NAD+ and instigating tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway. Activation of this pathway is additionally prompted by interferon-gamma and UV radiation, leading to the induction of IDO. Concurrently, heightened mitochondrial beta-oxidation signifies a distinctive scenario in translocating fatty acids into the mitochondria, enhancing energy production.

Вміст жирних кислот і продуктів перекисного окиснення ліпідів у сироватці крові молодняка української м’ясної породи при дії солей міді, селену та марганцю

Fatty acids have a significant impact on the overall metabolic processes in the body. One of the links of the general metabolism is the formation of peroxidation products during the oxidation of fatty acids. The aim of our work was to investigate the relationship between the content of fatty acids and lipid peroxidation products under copper, selenium, and manganese deficiency. The study was conducted on calves of the Ukrainian meat breed aged 6 months. An appropriate dose of deficient trace elements was added to the basic diet of the experimental groups. Determination of the spectrum of fatty acids in blood serum was performed using a gas chromatograph. The diet with copper, selenium and manganese increased the content of short-chain saturated fatty acids and the level of monounsaturated fatty acids decreased. The obtained results indicate the influence of individual fatty acids on the formation of peroxidation of products as a result of increased oxidation of the corresponding substrates. It is shown that deficient copper, selenium and manganese affect the correlation between fatty acids and peroxidation products. The revealed regularities can become the basis for the development of sound strategies for the mineral nutrition of beef cattle by including deficient trace elements and polyunsaturated omega fatty acids. In addition to obtaining important data on the relationship between biochemical processes in the body of beef cattle, the study of the influence of dietary strategies on the nutritional value and fatty acid composition of beef is provided by our further research.

GPCR-mediated effects of fatty acids and bile acids on glucose homeostasis.

Fatty acids and glucose are key biomolecules that share several commonalities including serving as energy substrates and as signaling molecules. Fatty acids can be synthesized endogenously from intermediates of glucose catabolism via de-novo lipogenesis. Bile acids are synthesized endogenously in the liver from the biologically important lipid molecule, cholesterol. Evidence abounds that fatty acids and bile acids play direct and indirect roles in systemic glucose homeostasis. The tight control of plasma glucose levels during postprandial and fasted states is principally mediated by two pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon. Here, we summarize experimental studies on the endocrine effects of fatty acids and bile acids, with emphasis on their ability to regulate the release of key hormones that regulate glucose metabolism. We categorize the heterogenous family of fatty acids into short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), unsaturated, and saturated fatty acids, and highlight that along with bile acids, these biomolecules regulate glucose homeostasis by serving as endogenous ligands for specific G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Activation of these GPCRs affects the release of incretin hormones by enteroendocrine cells and/or the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin by pancreatic islets, all of which regulate systemic glucose homeostasis. We deduce that signaling induced by fatty acids and bile acids is necessary to maintain euglycemia to prevent metabolic diseases such as type-2 diabetes and related metabolic disorders.

Increased n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Indicate Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Lipid Modifications in Synovial Membranes with Rheumatoid Arthritis

Emerging evidence suggests that fatty acids (FAs) and their lipid mediator derivatives can induce both beneficial and detrimental effects on inflammatory processes and joint degradation in osteoarthritis (OA) and autoimmune-driven rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The present study characterized the detailed FA signatures of synovial membranes collected during knee replacement surgery of age- and gender-matched OA and RA patients (n = 8/diagnosis). The FA composition of total lipids was determined by gas chromatography and analyzed with univariate and multivariate methods supplemented with hierarchical clustering (HC), random forest (RF)-based classification of FA signatures, and FA metabolism pathway analysis. RA synovium lipids were characterized by reduced proportions of shorter-chain saturated FAs (SFAs) and elevated percentages of longer-chain SFAs and monounsaturated FAs, alkenyl chains, and C20 n-6 polyunsaturated FAs compared to OA synovium lipids. In HC, FAs and FA-derived variables clustered into distinct groups, which preserved the discriminatory power of the individual variables in predicting the RA and OA inflammatory states. In RF classification, SFAs and 20:3n-6 were among the most important FAs distinguishing RA and OA. Pathway analysis suggested that elongation reactions of particular long-chain FAs would have increased relevance in RA. The present study was able to determine the individual FAs, FA groups, and pathways that distinguished the more inflammatory RA from OA. The findings suggest modifications of FA elongation and metabolism of 20:4n-6, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and plasmalogens in the chronically inflamed RA synovium. These FA alterations could have implications in lipid mediator synthesis and potential as novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools.

Polymeric nanoparticles containing babassu oil: A proposed drug delivery system for controlled release of hydrophilic compounds

Different drug delivery systems are prepared on the nanoscale to improve performance in drug formulations, such as nanoparticles or nanoemulsions. Polymeric nanoparticles have been used to encapsulate drugs for several applications because of some characteristics of these carriers to control drug delivery, transport molecules to a specific tissue, protect the drugs, and increase drug bioavailability. When using nanocapsules, an essential parameter for encapsulating different hydrophilic or lipophilic molecules is the characteristics of the core. Babassu oil (BBS) is a natural product from Brazil, composed majoritary of short-chain saturated fatty acids. BBS has an elevated hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), which may promote interaction of the oil with hydrophilic drugs. In this study, we developed and characterized particles containing babassu oil, solely or combined with sorbitan monostearate (Span® 60) or medium chain triglycerides (MCT) in the core to test different HLB and evaluated the encapsulation of a model hydrophilic molecule. Different techniques were used to characterize all formulations in terms of size and distribution, and in vitro drug release by dialysis technique was performed. The BBS was also characterized and presented 46,05 ± 1,11% and 15,38 ± 0,06% of lauric and myristic acid, respectively; saponification index of 248.87 ± 0.64 mg of KOH per gram of BBS, and no oxidation of the oil was indicated by means of peroxide index. Evaporation of solvent carried in the room or reduced pressure influenced the particles' size; nevertheless, all had a z-average smaller than 220 nm. Nanoparticles with a ratio among aqueous phase and organic phase of 2.8 were considered adequate to encapsulate diclofenac sodium. The particles size/zeta potential were 189.83 ± 7.86 nm / − 10.39 ± 2.52 mV, 156.80 ± 4.77 nm / − 9.27 ± 4.61 mV, and 168.87 ± 5.22 nm / − 12.98 ± 4.66 mV to nanoparticles prepared with BBS + MCT, BBS, and BBS + Span® 60, respectively. All formulations exhibited an amount of drug content close to the theoretical amount (1.0 mg mL−1), and no difference was observed in the release profile among the three nanoparticles. Formulation containing only babassu oil in the core displayed 66.78 ± 15.62% of encapsulation efficiency to diclofenac sodium, the highest value among all formulations tested. Results demonstrate that the innovative nanoparticles containing BBS promote the encapsulation of a model hydrophilic molecule, and other components can be evaluated to change the core’s hydrophilicity and encapsulation of molecules.

Dietary Fats and Cognitive Status in Italian Middle-Old Adults

The intake of total, single class of dietary fat, such as saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), and also single fatty acids grouped according to carbon-chain length, were evaluated by food frequency questionnaires (FFQs). Cognitive health was assessed using the short portable mental status questionnaire (SPMSQ). After adjustment for potential confounding factors subjects with a moderate consumption of both short-chain SFA (for Q2 vs. Q1, OR = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.66) and middle-chain SFA specifically lauric acid (C12:0) intake (for Q2 vs. Q1, OR = 0.27, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.77) were less likely to suffer from cognitive impairment. Among single MUFAs, erucic acid (C22:1) intake resulted in an inverse association, in a linear way, with cognitive impairment (for Q4 vs. Q1, OR = 0.04, 95% CI: 0.00, 0.39). Conversely, moderate intake of linoleic acid (C18:2) was associated with cognitive impairment (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 4.59, 95% CI: 1.51, 13.94). Regarding other PUFAs, individuals consuming moderate intake alpha linolenic acid (C18:3) were less likely to have cognitive impairment (for Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.64). Total SFA intake appeared to be inversely associated with cognitive impairment. Regarding specific subtypes of fatty acids, the results mostly referred to short- and middle-chain SFA. Further studies are needed to validate the results of the present study.

Patients with Anorexia Nervosa Demonstrate Deficiencies of Selected Essential Fatty Acids, Compensatory Changes in Nonessential Fatty Acids and Decreased Fluidity of Plasma Lipids

The objective of this study was to assess the essential fatty acid status of patients with anorexia nervosa. Blood was collected from eight fasting female anorexia nervosa patients with a mean of 81% ideal body weight. Fatty acid composition of phospholipids, nonesterified fatty acids, triglycerides and cholesteryl esters of plasma were determined by capillary gas chromatography to indicate polyunsaturated fatty acids status compared with 19 healthy female adults <25 y old. Subjects with anorexia nervosa showed polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiencies in plasma phospholipids different from simple nutritional essential fatty acid deficiency or chronic malnutrition. The phospholipid profile showed significantly lower (n-6) and (n-3) elongation and desaturation products, and elevated short-chain saturated, short-chain monounsaturated, branched-chain and odd-chain fatty acids. These elevations indicate enhancement of biosynthesis of alternative fatty acids that only partially compensated for the loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids in providing membrane “fluidity.” Calculated mean melting point of the fatty acids of phospholipids in patients with anorexia nervosa was elevated 7.7°C above normal values. These results demonstrate that patients with anorexia nervosa have deficiencies of selected essential fatty acids, compensatory changes in nonessential fatty acids and decreased fluidity of plasma lipids.

Prognostic value of blood saturated fatty acids in inflammatory bowel diseases

Background. Pathogenetic factors that cause the development of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) remain poorly understood, namely, the peculiarities of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in the blood serum at different degrees of disease severity, which is quite an important task. Objective: to evaluate serum level of SFAs depending on IBD severity. Materials and methods. Thirty-seven patients with IBD were examined, their average age was (38.5±2.1) years. Depending on the severity of the disease, the patients were divided into 2 groups: group I— with IBD of moderate severity (n=24) and group II— with severe IBD (n=13). The control group consisted of 16 healthy people. The quantitative content of SFAs in the blood serum of the examined patients was determined by gas chromatography. Median (Me), lower (25%) and upper (75%) quartiles were used to describe the data. Results. Biochemical analysis revealed a tendency to decrease in the level of short-chain SFA (butyric acid; p&gt;0.05) and a significant increase in the total content of medium- and long-chain SFAs (MCSFAs and LCSFAs; p&lt;0.001) in the serum of group I and II patients compared to the controls. It was found that with increasing severity of IBD, there was a decrease in LCSFAs content in the blood (r=–0.420, p=0.048). The serum spectrum of SFAs was analyzed and a significant increase in all MCSFAs fractions was detected in both groups of patients: caproic acid (p&lt;0.001), caprylic acid (p&lt;0.001), capric acid (p≤0.002), undecylic acid (p≤0.006) and lauric acid (p≤0.001). Characteristically, the content of the most MCSFAs fractions had a tendency to decrease (p&gt;0.05) in group I against group II of patients. The content of LCSFAs, namely: tridecylic acid (p≤0.012), myristic acid (p&lt;0.001), pentadecylic acid (p≤0.012), palmitic acid (p&lt;0.001), stearic acid (p≤0.001) and heneicosylic acid (p&lt;0.001), increased significantly in group I and II of patients, while the content of margaric and eicosanoic acids— only in group I compared to the controls. Almost all LCSFAs (except tridecylic acid) had a tendency to increase in group I against group II. Conclusions. It has been shown that the content of SFAs in the blood depends on the degree of IBD severity. The mechanism of SFAs action with different carbon chain lengths is multidirectional and is associated with the effect on pro-/anti-inflammatory mediators and with the maintenance of the immune and intestinal homeostasis. The necessity of determining serum SFAs in IBD to correct the identified disorders has been confirmed.

Dietary Fats and Depressive Symptoms in Italian Adults.

Depression represents one of the major causes of disability worldwide, with an important socioeconomic cost. Although many risk factors have been considered in its pathogenesis, nutrition seems to play a determinant role in its prevention. With regard to individual macronutrients, dietary fats and especially n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are the most studied. However, previous data about other dietary fatty acids, such as n-6 PUFA, are conflicting, and little is known about saturated fatty acids (SFA), especially when considering carbon chain length. Thus, we investigated whether single types and subtypes of dietary fats are related to depressive symptoms in Italian individuals living in the Mediterranean area. Dietary and socio-demographic data of 1572 individuals were analyzed. Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) were used to determine the consumption of total dietary fat and each specific class of dietary fat, such as SFA, monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and PUFA. The intake of fatty acids was also assessed according to the carbon-chain length of each single class. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was used as a screening tool for depressive symptoms. After adjustment for potential confounding factors, a significant inverse association between low/moderate levels of PUFA intake and depressive symptoms (Q2 vs. Q1, odds ratio (OR) = 0.60, 95% CI: 0.44, 0.84) was found. On the other hand, moderate saturated fat consumption was associated with depressive symptoms (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 1.44, 95% CI: 1.02, 2.04). However, when considering carbon chain length, individuals with a lower to moderate intake of short-chain saturated fatty acids (SCSFA) and medium-chain saturated fatty acids (MCSFA) were less likely to have depressive symptoms (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 0.48, 95% CI: 0.31, 0.75), while moderate intake of arachidic acid (C20:0) was directly associated with depressive symptoms (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 1.87, 95% CI: 1.26, 2.77). Among single MUFAs, higher myristoleic acid (C14:1) intake was directly associated with depressive symptoms (Q4 vs. Q1, OR = 1.71, 95% CI: 1.12, 2.61), while moderate intake of erucic acid (C22:1) was associated with lower odds of having depressive symptoms (Q3 vs. Q1, OR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.86). When considering individual PUFAs, individuals with moderate and higher intakes of arachidonic acid (C20:4) were less likely to have depressive symptoms (OR = 0.64, 95% CI: 0.45, 0.91; OR = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.38, 0.91, respectively). Similarly, higher eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5) intake was inversely associated with depressive symptoms (Q4 vs. Q1, OR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.98), while a significant association for docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) was retrieved only for low intakes (Q2 vs. Q1, OR = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.12, 0.88). Dietary fat intake may be associated with depressive symptoms, underlying the importance of distinguishing between different fat types. This study confirms the pivotal role of PUFAs and reopens the debate on the role of saturated fatty acids, suggesting plausible effects of moderate intakes of short-chain fatty acids.

Development and Method Validation of Butyric Acid and Milk Fat Analysis in Butter Blends and Blended Milk Products by GC-FID.

Butyric acid is a short-chain saturated fatty acid with four carbon atoms in its molecule. It is unique to butter made from cow's milk and is an indicator to evaluate the quality of butter and milk products as stated in their ingredient labels. This study determined the milk fat content of butter blends and blended milk products by analyzing the content of butyric acid prepared as derivatives of methyl esters prior to injection into a gas chromatography flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Results revealed that this method had specificity, a linear relationship for concentration in the range of 0.04-1.60 mg/mL, a coefficient of determination (R2) &gt; 0.999, an instrumental limit of detection (LOD) and a limit of quantitative analysis (LOQ) at 0.01% and 0.10% of total fat, respectively, and an instrumental working range of 0.10-3.60% of total fat. The results of a precision study using relative standard deviation (RSD) was 1.3%, while an accuracy study using the spiking method showed % recovery in the range of 98.2-101.9%. The method linearity range for milk fat analysis had a good linear correlation in the range of 3-100% of total fat (R2 &gt; 0.999). Results for method LOD and LOQ were 1% and 3% of total fat, respectively. This method also had good precision (1.3% RSD) and accuracy (99.6-100.1% recovery), which indicates reliability in terms of precision and accuracy. This method, therefore, can be used to check claims about the quality of blended butter and blended milk products to ensure consumer confidence in product quality.

Comparison of fatty acid composition of milk from Holstein and local breed cows in two breeding systems

&#x0D; Milk production and quality are influenced by many factors, including nutrition, management practices and breed. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of farming management system and breed on the milk yield, and fatty acid composition of the milk from 50 confinement-fed cows that were fed a total mixed ration, and 52 pasture-fed cows grazed together in rangeland. Individual milk samples (N = 102) were collected once in February. Milk from local breed was characterized by a significantly lower milk yield, and somatic cell count, and a higher protein content than the Holstein breed. The fatty acid composition was relatively the same in both breeds. The result showed that farming management system has no significant effect on the milk yield, somatic cell count, and fat contents, while there was a significant effect on protein content and fatty acid composition. The milk of Holstein cows from extensive system was characterized by more favorable fat fractions with significantly lower concentrations of C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, the sum of short and medium chain saturated fatty acids and n-6: n-3 ratio, and also by higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids and the sum of n-3 than the milk of Holstein from intensive system.&#x0D;

Dietary Fats and Cardio-Metabolic Outcomes in a Cohort of Italian Adults.

Background: Dietary fats, and especially saturated fatty acid (SFA), have been blamed for being the culprit in the dramatic increase in obesity and its associated diseases. However multiple systematic reviews and recent meta-analyses do not support the association between SFA and cardiovascular diseases. Thus, the objective of this study was to test whether specific types and subtypes of dietary fats are associated with metabolic outcomes in a cohort of Italian adults. Methods: Nutritional and demographic data of 1936 adults living in the south of Italy were examined. Food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) were administered to assess the intake of total dietary fat and each specific class of dietary fat, such as SFA, monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). The intake of fatty acids was also examined according to the carbon-chain length of each individual class. Cases of hypertension, type-2 diabetes and dyslipidemias were collected from previous doctor-confirmed diagnosis records (or direct measurement of blood pressure). Results: After adjustment for potential confounding factors, individuals reporting higher intakes of total and saturated fats were associated with lower likelihood of having hypertension (odds ratio (OR) = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.35, 0.91 and OR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.34, 0.89, respectively). Moreover, higher intake of short-chain saturated fatty acids (SCSFAs) and medium-chain saturated fatty acids (MCSFAs) was inversely associated with dyslipidemia and diabetes (OR = 0.43, 95% CI: 0.23, 0.82 and OR = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.09, 0.72, respectively). Among MUFAs, C18:1 was inversely associated with hypertension and diabetes (OR = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.30, 0.92 and OR = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.67, respectively), while C14:1 intake was inversely associated only with hypertension (OR = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.37, 0.88). In contrast, C20:1 intake was associated with dyslipidemia (OR = 3.35, 95% CI: 1.33, 8.42). Regarding PUFA, C18:2 and 20:5 were inversely associated with hypertension (OR = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.18, 0.60 and OR = 0.30, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.89, respectively). Conclusions: The consumption of SFA does not seem to be harmful to cardio-metabolic health and, on the contrary, SCSFA may exert beneficial effects. Further studies are needed to clearly validate the results of the present study.

The Characteristics of Lipid Biomarkers from the Abyssal and Hadal Sediments of the Yap Trench and the Influence of V-Shape Topography

Lipid biomarkers from deep-sea sediments have been observed in several studies, but little is known about their occurrence in trench system sediments. Here, we determined the concentrations of lipid biomarkers (fatty acids and neutral lipids) in sediments from the north Yap Trench. Our results showed that short-chain (C12–20) saturated fatty acids (SFAs) contributed more than (C12:1–23:1) monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and (C16:3–24:4) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Most fatty acids (FAs) suggest that bacteria and algae were the main contributors to marine organic matter. In contrast, terrestrial organic matter (OM) was a minor contributor to long carbon chain fatty acids greater than C20. On the other side, the observed neutral lipids such as alkanes (C14–C27), alkanols (C12–C20), alkenes (C17:1–C26:1), phytol and sterol (C27–29) indicate that phytoplankton and bacteria were the main contributors of organic materials in the sediments, and the carbon chain of neutral lipids C20–29 offering the sources of terrestrial organic matter. The extremely depleted δ13C values of fatty acids give the sources of organic carbon in the sediments from bacteria, algae, and methane-related microbes. This study is important for understanding the biogeochemical activities in deep-sea environments, particularly in the abyss and hadal zones. It will be helpful to understand the sources, transfer, and deposition of organic matter in marine trenches.

Recovery of valuable compounds from orange processing wastes using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction

Citrus processing industries produce high volumes of wastewater containing significant polluting loads for the environment, many of which are functional bioactive compounds. In this study, it was aimed to recover valuable bioactive components by supercritical CO2 extraction from orange processing wastes. For this purpose, an optimization study was carried out using the response surface methodology (RSM) in terms of pressure and temperature. The optimum experimental conditions were found to be 28.7 MPa and 60 °C for maximum extract yield, total phenolics content, total flavonoids content and antioxidant activity values. It was determined that some valuable phenolic compounds such as hesperetin, quercetin, apigenin, cyanidin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, isorhamnetin and their derivatives have been increased between 2 and 260 times in the extracts by supercritical CO2 extraction. Another important finding of this study was that short and medium chain saturated fatty acids were detected in the wastewater extracts while longer chain fatty acids were detected in the orange peel extracts. This may be due to the fact that more soluble short-chain fatty acids are transferred from the fruit to the juice during fruit processing.

Nutritional Properties of Milk from Dairy Ewes Fed with a Diet Containing Grape Pomace.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a diet containing a 10% of grape pomace (GP) on the milk yield, chemical-nutritional characteristics, total phenolic compounds (TPCs), antioxidant activity (AOA), fatty acids and proteins profile of dairy ewe’s milk. Forty-six ewes were dived into two groups: a control group (Ctrl), fed a standard diet, and an experimental group (GP+), whose diet was supplemented with 10% of GP on dry matter. The trial lasted 60 days and milk samples were collected and analyzed at the beginning (T0) and after 60 (T60) days. Dietary enrichment with GP did not affect the yield and the chemical composition of the milk. TPCs and AOA were not affected by the diet. After 60 days, the diet induced an increase in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and a decrease in medium chain saturated fatty acids (MCSFA), but the total saturated fatty acids (SFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), short chain saturated fatty acids (SCSFA) and long chain saturated fatty acids (LCSFA) were not modified. A decrease in the C14 desaturation index and an increase in the C18 index were also detected. Total caseins and whey protein were not affected by GP, even if a lower content of k-casein in GP+ milk compared to Ctrl milk was observed on the 60th day. The results of the present study suggest that 10% of GP can be included in the diet of lactating ewes without modifying milk gross composition but inducing significantly changes the fatty acid profile.

Novel Process Methods for the Whole Cottonseed: Effect on the Digestibility, Productivity, Fat Profile, and Milk Gossypol Levels in Lactating Dairy Cows.

In this study, we aimed to determine the effect of mixed-process methods on the ruminal degradability of whole cottonseed (WCS) both in situ and in vitro, and the effect on the production performance of dairy cows. Eight WCS process methods were tested on the ruminal digestibility, including crush-alkali 1 (CA1), crush-alkali 2 (CA2), crush-alkali 3 (CA3), alkali 1-crush (A1C), alkali 2-crush (A2C), alkali 3-crush (A3C), crush-only (CO), and non-processed. Alkali 1, 2, and 3 indicate the supplementation of alkali to WCS at the dose of 4% on dry matter (DM) base as followed: 4% NaOH, 2% NaOH + 2% CaO, and 2% NaOH + 2% CaCl2 alkaline, respectively. Among all treatments, CA2 showed the highest WCS ruminal degradation in situ and the highest intestinal digestibility of WCS in vitro. Furthermore, an animal experiment was conducted for 60 days on 30 Holstein dairy cows, using a diet without WCS (CON group), a diet containing 8% non-processed WCS (NP group), and a diet containing 8% CA2-treated WCS (CA2 group). The results indicated that the dry matter intake, 4% fat-corrected milk production, milk protein, milk fat, and content of short-chain saturated fatty acid of milk in the CA2 group were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than CON group. Furthermore, DMI, the CLA was significantly greater (P < 0.05) in the CA2 group than the other groups. Additionally, the free gossypol concentration in serum or milk was under safety level in the three groups. Overall, crush and alkalization (NaOH: CaO = 1:1) treatment could improve the utilization of WCS in dairy farms.

317 Effect of the Whole Cottonseed with Pre-treatment on the Digestibility, Productivity, and Milk Fat Profile of Dairy Cattle

Abstract To improve the efficiency of whole cottonseed (WCS) on dairy cattle, crush and alkali treatment were combined (Table 1) in this study. The gastrointestinal tract digestibility of WCS were measured by in situ ruminal incubation and in vitro fermentation, respectively. Finally, animal feeding experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of processed WCS on dairy cattle. A total of 30 Holstein dairy cows with similar physiological status were allocated to three groups (CON, Group I, and Group II). Ration for the CON group was a basic ration with no WCS, ration with about 8% non-processed WCS was for Group I (DM basis), while the Group II was provided by the ration added with 8% Crush-Alkali (4% mixed alkali solids with NaOH/CaO ratio at 1:1) treated WCS. Results of the in situ and in vitro experiments showed that, compared with non-treated WCS, Crushing-Alkali treatment groups significantly improved WCS ruminal effective degradation rate of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (P &amp;lt; 0.05). Furthermore, Crush-Alkali (4% mixed alkali solids with NaOH/CaO ratio at 1:1) was the most beneficial to improve WCS gastrointestinal degradation of DM, CP and NDF, as well as enhance WCS rumen-bypass of EE. With the lowest free gossypol content (P&amp;lt; 0.05). Results of animal feeding experiment showed that DMI, 4% fat corrected milk production (4% FCM), milk protein, milk fat, and content of short-chain saturated fatty acids in milk in Group II significantly increased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared with CON group. DMI, ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in milk, and the ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 PUFA were significantly higher in Group II than that in Group I (P &amp;lt; 0.05). Additionally, free gossypol concentration in serum and milk, as well as parameters reflecting liver function were not notably different among the three groups (P &amp;gt; 0.05).

Evaluation of fatty acid profile and naturalness of butter marketed in Bulgaria

Abstract. The predominant influence on the structural-mechanical characteristics (hardness, brittleness, etc.) and the chemical parameters (acidity, oxidation-reduction potential, etc.) of butter is exerted by its lipid composition. The aim of the study was to establish the fatty acid composition of some Bulgarian brands of butter and those imported from abroad, offered in the trade network of Bulgaria, in connection with their naturalness and health indicators. Five brands of butter produced in Bulgaria and imported from countries in the European Union were tested three times. The content of saturated fatty acids in the studied Bulgarian brands of butter varied from 66.16 to 75.15%, and for brands of butter imported from EU countries they varied in a significantly narrower range - from 67.51 to 72.49%. The amount of short-chain saturated fatty acids is higher for EU-imported butter brands. The data for the identification characteristics of all tested samples from the trade network of the country meet the requirements for naturalness of butter. The atherogenic index of butter varied from 2.56 to 3.26 for the imported brands of butter and from 2.41 to 3.70 for the Bulgarian ones, and the thrombogenic index from 1.49 to 2.36 for the imported brands, and from 1.44 to 2.17 for the Bulgarian ones, respectively.

Pengaruh Panjang Rantai Karbon dan Derajat Ketidakjenuhan terhadap Karakteristik Pembakaran Droplet Asam Lemak Tunggal

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the different carbon chain lengths and the degree of unsaturation of six fatty acids as the constituent of vegetable oils. The droplet combustion was carried out at an ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. The variation in the carbon chain length and the degree of unsaturation resulted in different physical and chemical properties of the fuel, which affect the droplet combustion characteristics. The increase of the carbon chain length results in longer ignition delay times and shorter burning durations, as well as higher droplet temperatures, burning rate constant, and specific power output. Conversely, an increase in the degree of unsaturation with the presence of double bond results in shorter ignition delay and longer burning duration, as well as higher droplet temperatures, but lower burning rate constant and specific power output. The droplet diameter evolution divides the combustion period into unsteady burning zones and quasi-linear burning zones. The flame dimension of unsaturated fatty acid is higher due to the soot formation at the top of the flame. A bluish flame related to the higher oxygen content in the molecule can be observed in saturated fatty acids. The short-chain saturated fatty acid has a large non-luminous zone because they are rich in oxygen. In contrast, the long-chain saturated fatty acid has a narrow non-luminous zone with high flame radiation.