Shoreline Classification Research Articles

Shoreline classification maps and ground truth data for the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina

Estuaries provide essential ecosystem services and economic value but are facing widespread degradation due to changing anthropogenic and climatic factors. In North Carolina, coastal structures, like bulkheads and riprap, are widely used by property owners throughout the Albemarle-Pamlico estuary to stop erosion and reclaim lost land following storm events. While coastal development is tightly governed, limited historical and no up-to-date data report on the spatial distribution of coastal structures throughout the Albemarle-Pamlico estuary. Here we describe the development of a dataset that classifies and catalogues 67 km of shoreline type along the Neuse River Estuary (NRE), a large tributary of the Albemarle-Pamlico. We used available LiDAR digital elevation models (DEMs), aerial imagery, and a ground truthing field campaign to determine shoreline type present along the NRE as of 2020. We validated these results using an intensive manual editing procedure that comparatively examines DEMs, LiDAR derived slope, aerial imagery, and ground truth photography of the shoreline. This dataset is available for public download.

Preserving fragile ecosystems from oil spills – An environmental sensitivity assessment of the east coast of Trinidad

Ecosystems remain vulnerable, reducing their resilience without informed planning and management to update oil spill vulnerabilities. An oil spill from an offshore platform was simulated to predict probable oil landing zones off the east coast of Trinidad. Climate, land use, and sedimentation were used to classify the east coast of Trinidad and to identify the geomorphic features that are most susceptible to oil spills. In ArcGIS, physical and biological resources were used to modify NOAA's estuarine classification and build an environmental sensitivity index (ESI) map representing wet and dry seasonal changes. Leatherback sea turtle nesting sites are highly vulnerable; thus, the shoreline classification reflects this. This research identified six intertidal ecosystem indices along the east coast of Trinidad, namely ESI-1, ESI-3, ESI-4, ESI-6 and ESI-10. Mangroves were considered the most sensitive habitat, whereas high wave energy locations were ranked the lowest. This study provides first responders and environmental officials with a methodological approach to determine the locations and areas most vulnerable and develop appropriate response and cleanup strategies/plans before the oil reaches land.

Exploring the effects of substrate mineral fines on oil translocation in the shoreline environment: Experimental analysis, numerical simulation, and implications for spill response

Mineral fines act a pivotal part in determining the fate and behavior of oil. In this study, the infiltrations of oil emulsion in simulated sediments and natural shoreline sediments were investigated using a fixed bed experiment. Oil infiltration process was simulated based on fixed-bed dispersion model. The role of mineral fines in oil release was explored using simulated and natural sediments. Although mineral fines exhibited a higher affinity for oil, it was found that increasing fines fractions decreased the flow rate of oil emulsion, thereby decreasing the oil retention in the sediment column. In terms of oil release from the sediment, the highest level of oil mass was observed in the oil-mineral flocculation phase compared to the water column and the water surface compartments. Compared to light crude oil, the release of engine oil from sediment was less. The effects of mineral fines on oil infiltration and release were also confirmed by using natural shoreline sediments. Results of our detailed field studies also showed that current shoreline classification datasets do not characterize the presence and fraction of mineral fines at a level of detail required to accurately predict the significance of oil translocation following spill incidents.

Natural and Anthropogenic Factors Shaping the Shoreline of Klaipėda, Lithuania

Port of Klaipėda is situated in a complex hydrological system, between the Curonian Lagoon and the Baltic Sea, at the Klaipėda strait in the South-Eastern part of the Baltic Sea. It has almost 300 m of jetties separating the Curonian Spit and the mainland coast, interrupting the main path of sediment transport through the South-Eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. Due to the Port of Klaipėda reconstruction in 2002 and the beach nourishment project, which was started in 2014, the shoreline position change tendency was observed. Shoreline position measurements of various periods can be used to derive quantitative estimates of coastal process directions and intensities. These data can be used to further our understanding of the scale and timing of shoreline changes in a geological and socio-economic context. This study analyzes long- and short-term shoreline position changes before and after the Port of Klaipėda reconstruction in 2002. Positions of historical shorelines from various sources were used, and the rates (EPR, NSM, and SCE) of shoreline changes have been assessed using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS). An extension of ArcGIS K-means clustering was applied for shoreline classification into different coastal dynamic stretches. Coastal development has changed in the long-term (1984–2019) perspective: the eroded coast length increased from 1.5 to 4.2 km in the last decades. Coastal accumulation processes have been restored by the Port of Klaipėda executing the coastal zone nourishment project in 2014.

Spatiotemporal Trends of Bora Bora’s Shoreline Classification and Movement Using High-Resolution Imagery from 1955 to 2019

Coastal urbanisation is a widespread phenomenon throughout the world and is often linked to increased erosion. Small Pacific islands are not spared from this issue, which is of great importance in the context of climate change. The French Polynesian island of Bora Bora was used as a case study to investigate the historical evolution of its coastline classification and position from 1955 to 2019. A time series of very high-resolution aerial imagery was processed to highlight the changes of the island’s coastline. The overall length of natural shores, including beaches, decreased by 46% from 1955 to 2019 while human-made shores such as seawalls increased by 476%, and as of 2019 represented 61% of the coastline. This evolution alters sedimentary processes: the time series of aerial images highlights increased erosion in the vicinity of seawalls and embankments, leading to the incremental need to construct additional walls. In addition, the gradual removal of natural shoreline types modifies landscapes and may negatively impact marine biodiversity. Through documenting coastal changes to Bora Bora over time, this study highlights the impacts of human-made structures on erosional processes and underscores the need for sustainable coastal management plans in French Polynesia.

SPATIAL MAPPING OF ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVE INDEX IN PULAU HUJUNG AND PULAU TENGAH, JOHOR

This paper addresses the necessity of sea spatial mapping for valuable natural resources of the island ecosystem in Pulau Hujung and Pulau Tengah, Johor. These islands are located in Johor Marine Park, rich with a diversity of marine life, resources, valuable ecosystems, and historical and cultural values. As an environmental asset considered as Environmental Sensitive Areas (ESA), the spatial mapping of its different zonal uses by using the Environmental Sensitive Index (ESI) is crucial in planning and managing natural resources within protected areas. By integrating the data of ESAs into the GIS application via the ESI, the generation of its outcome of digital mapping is easier to understand and applicable in managing the planning of the islands. The indices of ESI comprise of biological and human resources, and shoreline classification. Besides, the research refers to international guidance, namely the IUCN Guideline 2008 where the requirements of ESA protection were clearly stated. The results of the spatial mapping demonstrate that the islands could be categorised as preservation zone, habitat protection zone, general use zone, and buffer zone, in which each of these sea zonal use reflects both its characteristics and importance. The division of clear zones helps the relevant authorities to manage and monitor this special area so that these natural resources, marine life, and ecosystems can be sustained as the natural heritage of the nation. In a conclusion, it is evident that the spatial sea zonal use map is very significant and may benefit many stakeholders involved in planning and managing the waters of the eastern part of Johor.

Historical shoreline trend analysis and drivers of coastal change along the Ravenna coast, NE Adriatic

One of the most important aspects of coastal zone management is the analysis of shoreline dynamics. Over the last years, beaches of the Ravenna coast (NE Italy) experienced large modifications, in some places narrowing or even being completely lost, thus threatening tourism, coastal assets and nature. Coastal erosion has direct consequences for Ravenna tourist-based economy, which largely depends on the attraction provided by sandy beaches. In this study, long-term (> 50 years) coastal analysis was used to identify the sectors along the coast where the shoreline position has changed, either advancing or retreating. Shoreline changes were measured on GIS environment by means of Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) extension. Net Shoreline Movement (NSM) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR) strategies were employed to examine shoreline variability and reveal erosional/accretional trends. The results show that significant shoreline changes affected the entire coastal region, with most of the study area under retreat, mainly in the most valuable tourist assets of the littoral. The effects were found to be worsened by impacts of land subsidence, presence of harbor infrastructure and deficit in sediment budget. A simple shoreline classification was performed over the DSAS results and cross-checked with local knowledge of the area. The measurement of erosion or accretion rates in each studied segment is found to be useful for land use planning and coastal management plans, especially regarding the prediction of future shoreline positions. Especially important is the potential of the classification to identify areas of significant position change, with current and future implications for the design of sustainable shoreline management and mitigation measures.

Inter- and intra-annual apple snail egg mass dynamics in a large southeastern US reservoir

The introduction and spread of non-native species represents a significant threat to freshwaters. Non-native Pomacea are a recent and detrimental gastropod invader, altering habitats, biodiversity, and ecological function. Despite large size, adult Pomacea spp. may be cryptic but their egg masses, which are species specific in color and size, appear useful in determining presence and spatial distribution within invaded areas. We used a combination of annual (2013–2016) and monthly (April 2016–March 2017) shoreline transect surveys to determine the distribution of Pomacea spp. egg masses, along with habitat and water quality data, in Lake Seminole, GA, USA. Surveys identified invasive P. maculata and native P. paludosa, and provided evidence for rapid dispersal of P. maculata. Egg masses of both species occupied a wide range of emergent surfaces across the lake. Physicochemical measures suggest elevated specific conductivity corresponds with Pomacea presence. Temperature correlated with monthly variation of egg mass; however, egg masses were observed at water temperatures of 11.3 °C, below reported limits. Pomacea maculata dispersal throughout Lake Seminole is rapid, and shoreline classification and physicochemical conditions are influencing the on-going dispersal. Continued expansion of this invasive herbivore could have ecosystem-level consequences in Lake Seminole and other invaded waters across the southeast US.

A novel mathematical morphology based algorithm for shoreline extraction from satellite images

Shoreline extraction is fundamental and inevitable for several studies. Ascertaining the precise spatial location of the shoreline is crucial. Recently, the need for using remote sensing data to accomplish the complex task of automatic extraction of features, such as shoreline, has considerably increased. Automated feature extraction can drastically minimize the time and cost of data acquisition and database updating. Effective and fast approaches are essential to monitor coastline retreat and update shoreline maps. Here, we present a flexible mathematical morphology-driven approach for shoreline extraction algorithm from satellite imageries. The salient features of this work are the preservation of actual size and shape of the shorelines, run-time structuring element definition, semi-automation, faster processing, and single band adaptability. The proposed approach is tested with various sensor-driven images with low to high resolutions. Accuracy of the developed methodology has been assessed with manually prepared ground truths of the study area and compared with an existing shoreline classification approach. The proposed approach is found successful in shoreline extraction from the wide variety of satellite images based on the results drawn from visual and quantitative assessments.

Global distribution of modern shallow marine shorelines. Implications for exploration and reservoir analogue studies

Deposits of marginal marine depositional systems make up significant hydrocarbon reservoirs in the rock record. These systems are deposited by a complex interaction between competing depositional processes which can result in heterogeneous and compartmentalized reservoirs. Shallow marine systems are described using a ternary classification describing the relative importance of wave, tide and fluvial processes at the coastline. With the advent of freely available remote sensing data, modern systems are being increasingly used as analogues for the ancient, however to date, there has been no systematic quantification of global modern paralic systems. The aim of the present study has been to map and classify all the world's shorelines by ternary process and to consider the distribution and controls on different shoreline types.The semi-automated classification of marginal marine clastic shorelines has been achieved by combining data from a series of proxies for the ternary processes. Combined with coastline morphology, an algorithm predicts shoreline classification with an 85% success rate when compared to manual interpretation. Using this algorithm, the global shoreline has been subdivided into 246,777, 5 km segments and the distribution and proportions of these analyzed.The first order classification subdivides 28% of the world's coastlines as depositional. Within the depositional coastlines 62% are Wave-dominated, 35% Tide-dominated and 3% Fluvial-dominated. Analysis of shoreline type distribution suggests a complex network of inter-related controlling factors. Of these, climate and tectonic setting are reasonably well constrained in the ancient and can be used to predict the probability of a specific shoreline type. In addition to shedding insight into the controls on the distribution of different shoreline types, the results of this study can also be used to identify suitable modern analogues for ancient systems, which in turn can be used to extract data for better reservoir characterization.

Incorporating dynamic factors to the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline classification – Estonian and Spanish examples

Aps, R., Tõnisson, H, Anfuso, G., Perales, J.A., Orviku, K., Suursaar, Ü. 2014. Incorporating dynamic factors to the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline classification - Estonian and Spanish examples. In: Green, A.N. and Cooper, J.A.G. (eds.), Proceedings 13th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, pp. 235–240, ISSN 0749-0208.Oil transportation is growing in the Baltic Sea area and especially in the Gulf of Finland where it will reach approximately 180–200 million tons a year by 2020. Growing oil transportation is considerably contributing to the risk of accidental spill-related shoreline oiling. This paper focuses on amending the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) related shoreline classification to local conditions by dynamically changing the categorization of the shoreline in terms of its susceptibility to spilled oil caused by extreme meteorological events. This takes into consideration a number of natural physical factors. The paper presents the results of two European case studies: the Estonian shoreline of the Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea), and the Spanish coast of the Gibraltar Strait. Susceptibility to spilled oil of some categories of the Estonian shoreline (sandy shores, till shores and gravel shores) occasionally changes over time from low to high sensitivity and back; especially conditioned to the influence of heavy storms. The studies carried out in Spain revealed a well recognizable indirect proportionality between foreshore slope and the tidal range. At many locations, the dynamic morphological characteristics of the beach appeared to be largely determined by contouring and specific conditions that are modifying the initial ESI related categorization of the sandy beaches concerned. The novelty of this work is in attempt to move from the standard ESI related, and locally adapted, static shoreline classification towards more dynamic shoreline monitoring based on characterization of the elements sensitive to oil pollution on shorelines.

Incorporating dynamics factor to the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline classification – Estonian and Spanish example

Incorporating dynamics factor to the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline classification – Estonian and Spanish example

Support mechanisms for oil spill accident response in costal lagoon areas (Ria de Aveiro, Portugal)

Oil spill accidents can be caused by several risk factors associated to maritime transport and port activities, which cannot always be predicted or controlled. Therefore, it is essential to support prevention and contingency plans, whose effectiveness is crucial to produce adequate responses and minimize resulting impacts.Ria de Aveiro (Portugal) is a wide coastal lagoon, within a densely populated area, representing a concentration of important biodiversity resources and several economic activities. This paper presents alternative methodologies to support the optimization of civil protection assets in the occurrence of oil spill events and the results of their application on a section area of the Aveiro Lagoon, using an established geographic information system database containing crucial data.The presented methodologies are based on the Environmental Sensitivity Index developed by the North American National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA) and the Global Vulnerability Index which were applied on the Bay of Biscay (Spain). However, during the development of this work, neither of these methodologies was considered to entirely assess the study area in its full extent, which led to the need to adapt and define a bespoke approach. The introduced changes include extra categories in shoreline classification, an adapted physical vulnerability index for coastal lagoons, differentiated aspects for highly protected status areas, qualitative assessment of socioeconomic features and an access and operability index created to support emergency operation response.The resulting maps are the subject of analysis, in which considerations regarding control and cleanup methods are introduced, together with guidelines for further integration in local risk management strategies.

Integrating GIS and high resolution orthophoto images for the development of a geomorphic shoreline classification and risk assessment—a case study of cliff/bluff erosion along the Bulgarian coast

This paper demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating GIS and modern spatial data for the development of a detailed geomorphic classification of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. This classification is important for the precise measurement of various natural and technogenous (engineered) coastline types and serves as a basis for identification of the areas with high exposure to different coastal hazards. To illustrate potential uses of this simple methodology, a map of the potential coastal erosion/cliff retreat hazard for the Bulgarian coast was produced from this GIS database. Several types of data were used: high resolution orthophoto, topographical maps in 1:5,000 scale and geological maps. Geomorphic classification utilized both geomorphological and engineering criteria. A total of 867 segments were delineated along the coast. Four hundred sixty five were classified as natural landforms (cliffs, beaches, river mouths) with a total length of 362,62 km and 402 were indicated as technogenous segments (port and coast-protection structures, artificial beaches) with a total length of 70 km. Based on the geologic materials present at each segment and cliff height, the cliffed portions of the Bulgarian coast were classified for expected erosion rates, and therefore, hazard vulnerability: low hazard (volcanic type cliff); moderate hazard (limestone type cliff) and high hazard (loess and clayey types cliff). This “predictive model” was then compared to a previously published field study of coastal erosion rates to validate the model. As a result, a new high quality, but qualitative data for Bulgarian coastal bluff/cliff erosion were obtained, incorporated and analyzed in GIS.

Assessment of shoreline changes along the Lithuanian Baltic Sea coast during the period 1947–2010

Shoreline position measurements at various time instants can be used to derive quantitative estimates of the rate of shoreline change and help to understand the magnitude and timing of erosion or accretion processes. Aerial photographs and topographic maps from 1947 to 2010 have been used to derive instantaneous shoreline positions, from which shoreline change rates have been estimated using statistical parameters: shoreline change envelope (SCE), net shoreline movement (NSM), and end-point rate (EPR). Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling (nMDS) has been applied for shoreline classification into dynamic sectors. This study was carried out along 90.6 km of Lithuanian Baltic Sea coast over the time span 1947 to 2010. The study demonstrated that combined use of cartographic data and statistical methods could be a reliable method for shoreline related studies. Application of such data seems to be trustworthy in qualitative monitoring of shoreline changes, while it is the only available method for long term studies.

Littoral sensitivity index (LSI) to oil spills along the Santa Catarina island and adjacent areas

This paper describes the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) for oil-spill accidents for the Santa Catarina Island and surrounded areas. The shoreline classification was obtained according to the Guidelines for ESI elaboration, established by the Environmental Quality Secretariat of the Environmental Ministry (SQA/MMA, 2002). Field works and literature review were conduced in order to fulfill all the required information for the classification. All information was processed by a geographic information software system, Arc Map 8.3. The study area was divided into 291 segments, resulting in 447,5 km of shoreline classification. Index 10 is the most frequent in the study area, representing about 36% (mangroves, salt marshes and vegetated river-margins). The index 7 was not determined in the study area. The resulting ESI maps are articulated in 7 Operational Maps at 1:50.000 scales.

Mapping the environmental sensitivity to oil spill and land use/land cover using spectrally transformed Landsat 7 ETM data

Accidents involving oil spill in the marine environment cause a number of impacts on biological communities and impose severe damages on human-use resources. Environmental sensitivity index (ESI) maps are an integral component of oil spill contingency planning and emergency response. ESI maps can also be used for environment management planning by adding land use/land cover (LULC) information on shoreline classification, biological and human-use resources. We have assessed the adequacy of restored ETM+/Landsat 7 images to generate ESI and LULC maps for a stretch of coastline between the cities of Areia Branca (RN) and Fortim (CE) in the Potiguar sedimentary basin, Northeast Brazil. This has been done by comparing results from segmentation by region growth and unsupervised classification of images generated by standard and selective principal components, IHS transform, soil adjusted vegetation index, and linear spectral mixture model. The assignment of image classes to map themes was aided by visual interpretation of digitally processed images and ground truth. Results clearly indicate that image restoration followed by fusion of multispectral and panchromatic ETM images via IHS transformation is the most versatile image product to be segmented and classified. The mapping approach is based on information from both image texture and statistics, and has the advantage of reducing interpretation bias introduced by analyst during contextual editing. We also show that the hybrid mapping scheme that uses automated and visual image interpretation is particularly useful for mapping the ESI and LULC.

The use of spatial analysis for environmental assessment of shellfish aquaculture in Baynes Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada

The Baynes Sound area accounts for a large proportion of shellfish aquaculture production in British Columbia. In response to non-industry concerns regarding impacts from this inter-tidal farming on bird populations in Baynes Sound, a quantitative inventory of aquaculture infrastructure, more specifically clam netting, was done. Low-level high-resolution air photos were taken during periods of extreme low tides, for all intertidal shellfish tenures in Baynes Sound. Images were geo-referenced and used to create a digital geographic file of clam netting. Geographic Information System (GIS) processing of this clam net coverage information combined with existing shore substrate data and new littoral bathymetry data for Baynes Sound resulted in an accurate enumeration of clam net coverages for each of Baynes Sound's major substrate types and for the farmed clam species' optimum habitat. The results showed shellfish tenures occupy 20.3% and clam netting 2.9% of the intertidal area of Baynes Sound as defined by the Baynes Sound Coastal Plan [British Columbia Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, 2000. Baynes Sound Coastal Plan for Shellfish Aquaculture. http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/rmd/coastal/planning/south_island/baynes/docs/Baynes_Plan_Dec19_2002.pdf] boundary. Of the major substrate types in Baynes Sound, none had a clam net coverage exceeding 6%. Further analysis using optimal habitat areas, based on tidal heights, for each of three clam species [ Prothaca staminae (native littleneck), Nuttallia obscurata (varnish clam), and Tapes philippinarum (manila clam)] revealed no clam net coverage exceeded 20% of a shore type (based on a major substrate) found within optimal habitat areas (with the average below 6%). These techniques offer a cost-effective method of assessing inter-tidal resource utilization and provide a basis for time-series evaluation and a useful tool for adaptive resource management in Baynes Sound. More generally, these techniques can be used in any region where a shoreline classification system is complete to quantify the extent of intertidal habitat modification and be used as a decision support tool.

Hawaii Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) Maps and the Spatial Accuracy of ESI Mapping Methodology

ABSTRACT Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps and digital databases have been generated for the Hawaiian Islands. ESI atlases integrate the most recent data available in three general categories: shoreline habitats, biological resources, and human-use resources, to provide spill responders with a synopsis of critical information. The new Hawaii atlas was prepared using standardized ESI data collection and analysis methods. For the first time, the spatial accuracy of the ESI shoreline classification method has been quantitatively measured using GPS. Shoreline classification methodology consisted of low-altitude overflights during the 2.5 hours preceding and following low-tide. Aerial classifications were then checked on the ground throughout the study area. USGS 7.5 minute basemaps were used in the field and shoreline segmentation annotation was transcribed from scanned field maps to a digital shoreline provided by the State. ESI surveys in August of 2000 resulted in nineteen shoreline classes for the Hawaiian chain. The GPS field study was conducted simultaneously with shoreline classification. During GPS surveys boundaries between ESI shoreline segments were located in the field and their position recorded with a hand held GPS. The coordinates of the segment boundary as located on the final ESI map were compared to those recorded with the GPS. Data for over 60 locations were analyzed statistically using three commonly accepted error-reporting methodologies. A Root Mean Squared (RMS) error of 33.5 meters, a Circular Error Probable (CEP) of 28 meters, and a 95% error bound of 58.2 meters were found. Error occurred unsystematically and was attributed to various factors, including inaccuracies in basemap shorelines, human error in the field and cartography, and error expected when mapping natural gradations as discreet points.

Sensitivity Mapping – With Flare! An Internet Approach to Environmental Mapping

ABSTRACT During emergencies the ready availability of information on the location and vulnerability of resources at risk is crucial to a successful response and in preventing or minimizing further environmental impacts. Environment Canada, Atlantic Region, has developed over a number of years a computer based GIS mapping system for managing and analyzing environmental information. This stand-alone user friendly mapping application has recently moved to the web; allowing broader access by federal, provincial and industry partners in the spill response field. Enhancements have been made that facilitate better coordination and exchange of data among partners. It incorporates a unique shoreline classification system which can be viewed in concert with biological, human use and logistical data. It includes a spill logging function to manage situation reports, maps, resource summaries, photographs and trajectory model outputs. The system allows thematic layers to be displayed on either topographic maps or hydrographic charts and possesses links to other sites that allow real-time display of weather and ocean current data useful in a response. With an open architecture concept the web mapping system is readily modified; partners are able to digitize on-line and to update their own databases shared on the system. Mapped data for the northeastern United States is also included in the package to facilitate joint response to trans-boundary pollution incidents. Although this paper will highlight the unique features of the web mapping application for planning and responding to environmental emergencies, other partners are using the system for conducting environmental assessments, inland management projects, or planning for nuclear emergencies around the globe.