Shoot Elongation Phase Research Articles

Regulation of Early Plant Development by Red and Blue Light: A Comparative Analysis Between Arabidopsis thaliana and Solanum lycopersicum.

In vertical farming, plants are grown in multi-layered growth chambers supplied with energy-efficient LEDs that produce less heat and can thus be placed in close proximity to the plants. The spectral quality control allowed by LED lighting potentially enables steering plant development toward desired phenotypes. However, this requires detailed knowledge on how light quality affects different developmental processes per plant species or even cultivar, and how well information from model plants translates to horticultural crops. Here we have grown the model dicot Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) and the crop plant Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) under white or monochromatic red or blue LED conditions. In addition, seedlings were grown in vitro in either light-grown roots (LGR) or dark-grown roots (DGR) LED conditions. Our results present an overview of phenotypic traits that are sensitive to red or blue light, which may be used as a basis for application by tomato nurseries. Our comparative analysis showed that young tomato plants were remarkably indifferent to the LED conditions, with red and blue light effects on primary growth, but not on organ formation or flowering. In contrast, Arabidopsis appeared to be highly sensitive to light quality, as dramatic differences in shoot and root elongation, organ formation, and developmental phase transitions were observed between red, blue, and white LED conditions. Our results highlight once more that growth responses to environmental conditions can differ significantly between model and crop species. Understanding the molecular basis for this difference will be important for designing lighting systems tailored for specific crops.

Genetically Determined Differences in Annual Shoot Elongation of Young Norway Spruce

The annual shoot elongation could be described by a non-linear growth model to characterize differences in its dynamics among spruce genotypes, the effect of each shoot elongation phase on the total shoot length, and the genetic differences for a particular growth phase. The terminal shoot length was measured in two open-pollinated progeny trials of Norway spruce on average once per week during the ninth growing season. For the analysis, 10% of families with the longest annual increment (shoot) and 10% with the shortest were selected for each trial. The Gompertz model was fitted to individual tree data, and the mean values of its coefficients for each group of families were obtained. Family significantly (p < 0.001) affected total shoot length and all growth rhythm parameters, with similar trends reported in both studied sites. Heritability of Gompertz model coefficients in most cases exceeded that of the tree height. The superior10% of families started shoot elongation slightly but non-significantly earlier (all p > 0.05) than the other groups of families and had more intense shoot elongation (mm per day) during the entire growing season. A strong negative relation was found between the slope coefficient of the cumulative shoot elongation lines and the total height increment. The group of families with the longest increment had flatter relative shoot elongation lines, indicating relatively more evenly distributed growth within the growing season. In contrast, families with the shortest increment tended to accumulate a higher proportion of height increment during the active growth phase and reduced relative growth intensity more rapidly. The 10% of families with the largest annual increment showed superior characteristics in all shoot elongation phases, resulting in 30–40% longer shoots compared to the 10% of families with the smallest annual increment. The significant differences in Gompertz model coefficients indicate that genotypes with favorable growth patterns might be selected.

A Simple Drought‐Sensitive Model for Leaf : Stem Partitioning of Wheat

AbstractWe investigated the leaf : stem partitioning of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L. varieties ‘Dekan’ and ‘Batis’) with and without drought influence. Irrigated and drought‐stressed winter wheat, grown in a rainout shelter in 2009/10 and 2013/14, were sampled during shoot elongation phase at the experimental Farm Hohenschulen located in Northern Germany. The data set contains leaf (DML) and stem dry masses (DMS), as well as measured water contents for several soil layers. A reduced relative dry matter allocation to leaves was observed under drought stress. Our results clearly show that, if simulated leaf : stem partitioning is not sensitive to drought, this will cause a positive bias in simulated leaf and a negative bias in simulated stem dry matter under water‐limited conditions. This is in accordance with previous studies which revealed that crop simulators often overestimate the impact of drought on light‐use efficiency, whereas the consequences on leaf area development are underestimated. However, the drought stress‐induced shift in leaf : stem partitioning is yet not considered by most common wheat crop simulators. Our aim was to fill the gap in simulation of drought stress implications on leaf area development. A simple allometric model for leaf : stem partitioning () was parameterized. Starting from the allometric leaf : stem relationship observed under optimum water supply, a correction term was introduced, which allows to adapt the partitioning to drought stress conditions. The lg‐transformed root‐weighted soil water potential in the rooting zone (lgψroot, lg(hPa)), calculated as a function of measured water contents and simulated root distribution, was used as a drought stress indicator. The linear correction term assumes an increase of the stem fraction, proportional to the difference between lgψroot and a drought stress threshold (pFcrit, lg(hPa)). The analysis revealed that the shift in allometric partitioning towards stem fraction starts with lgψroot greater than 1.92 [lg(hPa)]. The slope of the relative increase of dry matter allocated to the stem fraction was determined with 0.26 [lg(hPa)−1]. Both parameters of the correction term were found to be highly significant. Implications for crop modelling are discussed.

Comparison of plantain plantlets propagated in temporary immersion bioreactors and gelled medium during in vitro growth and acclimatization

The current work compared the physiological characteristics of plantain (Musa AAB) plantlets micropropagated in temporary immersion bioreactors (TIB) and on a gelled medium (GM). The plantlets were evaluated during in vitro growth (in the shoot elongation phase) and at the end of ex vitro acclimatization. TIB improved rooting and gave rise to longer shoots and higher dry mass. Respiration rate was the highest at the beginning of shoot elongation in both the TIB and GM plantlets. Photosynthetic rate in TIB was significantly higher than in GM from the midpoint of acclimatization, whereas a pyruvate kinase (PK) activity was lower. Starch accumulation was ca. two fold higher in corms than in leaves and always higher in the TIB than GM plantlets. The higher expression of genes coding for carbon metabolism enzymes PK and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) in TIB than in PM indicates a more important role of an autotrophic metabolism in the TIB plantlets when compared to the GM ones. The accumulated reserves were used during the first days of acclimatization leading to the higher survival rates and to the better plant quality of the TIB plantlets.

An improved method for micropropagation and regeneration of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)

We developed a novel large-scale micropropagation pathway for date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) based on organogenesis. We obtained organogenic stems from shoot tip explants of the Moroccan date palm cultivar Najda, and investigated shoot proliferation from these organogenic stems in vitro on various media; Beauchesne medium (BM) and Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) at full-strength, half-strength, and one-third-strength, containing various concentrations (0, 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/L) of 2-naphthoxyacetic acid (NOAA) and kinetin. The optimal medium during the multiplication phase was half-strength Murashige and Skoog medium (MS/2) supplemented with 0.5 mg/L NOAA and 0.5 mg/L kinetin (23.5 morphologically superior shoots per explant, with low vitrification rates). For the shoot elongation phase, shoots were transferred to the same proliferation medium, or to MS or MS/2 media without plant growth regulators (PGRs). Shoots elongated rapidly and showed a high rate of root formation on media supplemented with PGRs. For example, on MS/2 medium containing 1 mg/L NOAA and 1 mg/L kinetin, the average shoot length was 15.1 cm, the average number of roots per shoot was 6.2, and their average length was 3.4 cm. On PGR-free media, shoots were shorter with wider and greener leaves, and had fewer roots. The plantlets were transferred to a greenhouse for acclimation. The survival rate after 2 months was related to the medium used during the elongation phase; >90 % of shoots that were cultured on PGR-free media survived, while there was a poor survival rate of shoots that had been cultured on media containing PGRs.

Effects of soil temperature on shoot and root growth and nutrient uptake of 5-year-old Norway spruce seedlings

Soil temperature is a main factor limiting root growth in the boreal forest. To simulate the possible soil-warming effect of future climate change, 5-year-old Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings were subjected to three simulated growing seasons in controlled environment rooms. The seedlings were acclimated to a soil temperature of 16 degrees C during the first (GS I) and third growing seasons (GS III), but were assigned to random soil-temperature treatments of 9, 13, 18 and 21 degrees C during the second growing season (GS II). In GS II, shoot diameter growth was lowest in the 21 degrees C treatment and root growth was lowest in the 9 degrees C treatment. In GS III, shoot height and root length growth improved in seedlings that had been kept at 9 degrees C during GS II, indicating compensatory growth in response to increased soil temperature. The temporary decrease in soil temperature had no long-lasting significant effect on seedling biomass or total nutrient uptake. At the end of GS III, fine roots of seedlings exposed to a soil temperature of 21 degrees C in GS II were distributed more evenly between the organic and mineral soil layers than roots of seedlings in the other treatments. During GS II and GS III, root growth started earlier than shoot growth, decreased during the rapid shoot elongation phase and increased again as shoot growth decreased.

Micropropagação do porta-enxerto de macieira 'Seleção 69' tolerante à podridão do colo (Phytophthora cactorum)

A utilização de porta-enxertos anões, tolerantes a problemas fitossanitários da cultura da macieira, como a podridão do colo (Phytophthora cactorum), pode aumentar o rendimento e reduzir os custos de produção. Com o presente trabalho, objetivou-se estabelecer um protocolo de micropropagação do porta-enxerto 'Seleção 69', tolerante à podridão do colo. Ápices meristemáticos foram cultivados in vitro em meio de cultura MS, suplementado com 4,4mM de 6-Benzilaminopurina (BAP), 2,5mM de Ácido indolbutírico (AIB), 0,3mM de Ácido giberélico (GA3), 3% de sacarose e 0,6% de ágar. Foram testados o efeito da concentração de BAP (2,2 e 4,4mM) e o efeito dos meios de cultura (MS, Cheng e Quoirin & Lepoivre) na multiplicação das brotações. No alongamento das brotações, foram testados os efeitos do GA3 (0; 0,5; 1,0 e 1,5mM) e AIB (0; 0,5 e 1,0mM). Para a fase de enraizamento ex vitro e aclimatização, foram testadas diferentes concentrações de AIB (0; 1 e 2g L-1). A taxa de desenvolvimento dos ápices meristemáticos cultivados in vitro foi de 30%. Para estimular a brotação, a melhor concentração de BAP foi 2,2mM, a qual proporcionou 2,6 brotações por explante. O meio MS proporcionou o maior número de brotações por explante (2,5), porém não diferiu estatisticamente do meio Cheng (2,0 brotações por explante). Para a fase de alongamento, o meio MS suplementado com 2,2mM de BAP e 1,0mM de AIB, proporcionou a maior altura das brotações (23mm). Na fase de enraizamento ex vitro e aclimatização, as concentrações de 0, 1 e 2g L-1 de AIB possibilitaram em média, 77,3% de enraizamento das microestacas.

Agrobacterium -mediated transformation of the commercially important grapefruit cultivar Rio Red ( Citrus paradisi Macf.)

Transgenic plants of grapefruit cv. Rio Red (Citrus paradisi Macf.) have been obtained by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer using seedling-derived epicotyl segments as explants and kanamycin as the selective agent. The transformation procedure includes a shoot elongation phase with a liquid medium overlay, which provides additional selection against non-transgenic shoots. Transformed shoots are invigorated and multiplied on a non-selective medium prior to grafting, thus assuring that plants can be recovered from transgenic shoots. We have constructed a binary vector, pBin34SGUS, with an intron-containing β-glucuronidase gene (uidA) under the control of the Figwort mosaic virus 34S promoter. The 34S promoter efficiently drives uidA gene expression both in transient assays and in transgenic Rio Red leaf tissue, although at levels five- to sevenfold lower than the Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. An untranslatable coat protein gene (uncp) of the Citrus tristeza virus strain SY568 and the Galanthus nivalis agglutinin gene (gna) were inserted into pBin34SGUS and transgenic plants have been obtained. Stable integration of the uncp and gna genes was confirmed by Southern hybridization and gna gene expression was confirmed by Western blot analysis.

EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTARY LIGHTING AND BENDING TECHNIQUE ON GROWTH, FLOWERING AND CARBOHYDRATE STATUS OF ROSA HYBRIDA 'FRISCO'

The effect of 2 supplementary lighting regimes (30 and 60 mu mol/m(2).s) and 2 cultural techniques (bending or decapitation) on the development of the new stems, dry-matter distribution and carbohydrate content of Rosa hybrida 'Frisco' plants was evaluated. Experiments were performed with single shoot rooted cuttings in a greenhouse compartment. Plants were grown at 18/16 degrees C day/night temperature and received a photoperiod of 18 hours. At each light level (30 and 60 mu mol/m(2).s) plants were randomly split in two groups depending on the harvesting technique. The primary shoot was either decapitated above the two most basal leaves with five leaflets or bended. Development of two shoots per plant was allowed. The analysis were performed on those two emerging shoots. The experiment was performed from January until March 1996, and was repeated for the decapitation treatment only, from March until May 1996. Bending of the primary shoot resulted in significant longer stems and increased flower stem weight and flower stem diameter with no effect of the supplementary lighting on the flower stem quality at harvest. For decapitated plants, however, a supplementary lighting of 60 mu mol/m(2).s reduced significantly the percentage of flower abortion, increased the flower stem development rate and the flower stem weight in comparison with 30 mu mol/m(2).s. The bending technique, in comparison to the decapitation method, results in faster shoot growth rate associated to higher glucose and fructose concentration in the apical part of the stem during the differentiation of the flower primordia and the shoot elongation phase.

Micropropagation of Hemidesmus indicus for cultivation and production of 2-hydroxy 4-methoxy benzaldehyde

Caulogenic responses of various explant types from 12-month-old plants of Hemidesmus indicus were tested. Second and third visible nodes (0.5 cm) from the apex and root segments (0.5 cm) were the most and least regenerative respectively, with the formation of 9.37 and 2.6 shoots in 4 weeks on half strength MS medium supplemented with 2.22 μM BA and 1.07 μM NAA and 4.44 μM BA and 2.69 μM NAA respectively. Caulogenic ability of the nodes decreased with increasing maturity. Shoot buds initiated upon the young nodes on day 10 developed into 7.2 cm long shoots within 4 weeks thereby making a shoot elongation phase unnecessary. Nodal explants of the in vitro raised shoots subcultured in the same medium produced 9.32 shoots of 7.1 cm length in 3–4 weeks, similar to those of the mature plant-derived nodes. Multiplication through subculture of the nodes up to 25 passages of 4 weeks each was achieved without decline. Shoot cultures were rooted in quarter salt strength MS medium containing 9.8 μM IBA and the rooted plants were hardened for establishment in pots at 96% rate. Four months after establishment, the micropropagated plants were stable and showed uniform morphological and growth characteristic. After 12 months of cultivation in the field, on an average micropropagated plant consisted of 4–5 shoots, 5–8 branches per shoot and increased root biomass (13.5 g) compared to the poor growth (single shoot and 2–3 branches) and root production (4.6 g) values obtained with plants raised from conventional rooted stem cuttings. The concentration of the root specific compound, 2-hydroxy 4-methoxy benzaldehyde per plant was 2–3 fold higher in micropropagated plants though on unit dry root biomass (0.12% per g dry wt) basis it remained the same between two sources of plants.

Initiating cultures ofHalesia andMalus: influence of flushing stage and benzyladenine

Shoot tips ofHalesia carolina L. andMalus domestica Borkh. ‘Golden Delicious’ collected at various times during the spring growth flush varied considerably in their ability to initiate shoot proliferating cultures. Shoot tips collected during, or at the end of, the period of most rapid shoot elongation exhibited weak shoot proliferation potential, while shoot tips collected before or after this period were capable of strong shoot proliferationin vitro. Benzyladenine concentrations in the culture media above 22.5 µM (Halesia) or 44.5 µM (Malus) were inhibitory during the period between bud break and rapid shoot elongation. Benzyladenine concentrations of 22.5 or 44.5 µM were useful in enhancing shoot proliferation potential in shoot tips collected after the period of rapid shoot elongation, but before the onset of summer dormancy. Benzyladenine concentration did not affect the shoot proliferation potential of shoot tips collected during the rapid shoot elongation phase of the spring growth flush.Halesia andMalus shoot tips behaved similarly in this study. For deciduous woody perennials, the time of explant collection for culture initiation could be refined on the basis of these results.

Initiation and Development of Lateral Buds in Abiesbalsamea

Lateral buds of Abiesbalsamea (L.) Mill, are initiated on shoots within the previous season's vegetative terminal and subterminal buds about 1 week before the latter burst. Initiation coincides with megasporangiate-bud burst. Prophyll primordia form 1 week after bud initiation and cataphyll production continues throughout the shoot-elongation phase. Some lateral buds cease development during, or at the end of, the cataphyll-formation period and become latent. Most lateral buds in the megasporangiate zone of the crown occur on the upper sides of the shoots and may differentiate into megasporangiate or vegetative buds: those in the microsporangiate zone occur largely on the lower sides of the shoots and normally differentiate into microsporangiate buds. Bracts are initiated in megasporangiate buds from late July to October, and during September, ovuliferous scales form at the bases of most bracts. No differentiation is evident within the ovuliferous scales by the end of October. Needles are initiated in vegetative buds from late July to October. In microsporangiate buds microsporophylls form from late July through August. The microsporangia contain sporogenous tissue by early September and angular archesporial cells by October.