Ships Operating In Polar Waters Research Articles

Probabilistic analysis of operational ice damage for Polar class vessels using full-scale data

To ensure the safety of maritime operations in polar waters, the IMO enforced the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) in 2017. To address ice navigation related risks, the Polar Code refers to a set of guidelines known as the Polar Operational Limit Assessment Risk Indexing System (POLARIS). Following POLARIS, operational limits for ice navigation are defined based on the Risk Index Outcome (RIO) value, which takes into account the prevailing ice conditions and the ice class of a ship.Recent studies indicate that the POLARIS guidelines are well-founded. However, no direct relationship between RIO values and the probability of an ice-induced hull structural damage has been established. To enable a more accurate analysis of ice navigation risks, this article addresses this issue by (i) relating measured ice-induced loads to RIO values corresponding to the ice conditions in which the loads were measured, (ii) calculating the load limits for plastic deformation and rupture of the ice belt of hull structures representing different ice classes, and (iii) defining the probability of structural damage for different load limits. The study utilizes long-term full-scale ice load measurements carried out onboard Polar Supply and Research Vessel (PSRV) S.A. Agulhas II in the Antarctic Ocean. The load limits were calculated for ice class standards, PC3, PC4, PC5, PC6, and PC7 in accordance with the Unified Requirements of the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS).On a general level, the results are consistent with earlier findings indicating that the POLARIS guidelines are well-founded. If a ship operates mainly at ‘normal operation’ level, the probability for fracture at hull are at probability levels of 10-3 and 10-4 for ice classes PC3 to PC5. The probability levels for PC6 and PC7 are higher that is possibly a result from conservative load probability distributions. When the portion of operations at ‘special consideration’ level becomes significant, the probability of fracture at the hull increases significantly. However, large ice thicknesses and the largest load magnitudes may be associated with positive RIO values. Some inconsistencies are recognized, and the uncertainty and limitations of the analysis are discussed.

The Arctic Council, the International Maritime Organization, and the Polar Code

Numerous scientific investigations and multilateral efforts have contributed to our understanding of environmental challenges and how to deal with them; yet little effective and coordinated action has been taken. We review existing literature on climate clubs and on international society in the English School of international relations in order to assess how environmental and security risks can result in the formation of international institutions that seek to transcend the free-rider problem. We then ask what factors explain the emergence of the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) adopted in 2014, and how powerful states worked through the Arctic Council (AC) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) to establish it. We identify three parameters with respect to the shipping industry and Arctic region that made this advance possible at the nexus of environment and security: the identification of culprits, great power interest, and the socio-economic context. We find a degree of success even when substantive differences exist both inside and outside of the region and industry. Thus, the case study points to important applications of these parameters for future environmental peacebuilding.

Goal-based Ship Design Towards Safe and Sustainable Shipping in Ice-Covered Waters

Maritime activity in the Arctic is on the increase, driven by the extraction of natural resources, trans-Arctic shipping, and tourism. To manage the risks to humans and the polar environment, in 2017 the IMO enforced the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code). The safety provisions of this Code are fundamentally goal-based, allowing designers to deviate from established prescriptive safety rules, facilitating design optimization and innovation. However, to enable goal-based design, ship designers need relevant and validated design tools. In this paper, we present examples of such tools, namely (a) accident statistics, (b) a framework for risk-based design of Arctic ships, (c) a simulation model of a winter navigation system, and (d) a sustainability assessment tool for Arctic shipping. The results are based on three different European Union funded research projects (SEDNA, WINMOS I/II), as well as on the Lloyd's Register Foundation funded project CEPOLAR.

Improving the quality of implementation of the container transportation project along the NSR based on the environmental and energy transition agenda

The article considers the possibilities of improving the quality of transportation project along the Northern Sea Route (NSR) within the environmental and energy transition agendas. A multiple increase in the cost of container freight in 2019–2021 is considered as an economic incentive to justify the feasibility of a large-scale expansion of transit container traffic along the NSR by 2030–2035 within the Northern Maritime Transit Corridor (NMTC) project. It will require the construction of specialized ice-class ships in compliance with the general emission requirements set by the IMO for new ships, as well as the requirements of the IMO's International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code). To ensure the eco-economic efficiency of NSR transit, the need to organize transshipment hubs is also taken into account. The paper provides a generalized assessment of the energy and eco-saving potential of ice-class ships, depending on different types of main fuel and vessel average speed index. The obtained results preliminary evaluate the energy and eco-efficiency of solutions for installing LNG and hythane engines at modern polar ships, including designing specialized bulk container ships. The prominent restrictions on the implementation of the NMTC project in the context of current anti-Russian sanctions, were also considered.

A discussion on the implementation of the Polar Code and the STCW Convention’s training requirements for ice navigation in polar waters

In 2017, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) implemented the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code), with mandatory requirements covering the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. In this conjunction, the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) were amended in 2018. New training requirements were made applicable for dedicated personnel in charge of a navigational watch on ships with a Polar Ship Certificate (PSC) operating in polar waters. In association with the new training requirements amending the STCW Convention, the IMO, and Transport Canada (flag state authority) signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 2017, for Canada to develop and deliver four regional capacity-building “train-the-trainer” workshops. The objectives of these events were to assist maritime education and training (MET) institutes in enhancing the skills and competence of instructors, to develop competence-based STCW training programs, for dedicated personnel on ships operating in polar waters. This paper examines the first workshop conducted in Canada (2019), to understand the mechanisms in the interaction taking place between the IMO and the Canadian workshop developers and instructors, using the System Theoretic Accident Model and Processes (STAMP). Individual expert interviews are performed, with the main contributors directly involved in developing and conducting the workshop, to evaluate the event’s contribution to improving and specifying the STCW Convention’s training requirements, as referenced in the Polar Code, for seafarers operating in polar waters.

Legal Protection of the Marine Environment During the Transportation of Oil Products: International Legal Aspects

The article discusses the risks that arise for the environment during the production and transportation of hydrocarbons. Irreparable damage to the environment is caused as a result of accidents on ships and oil platforms, the consequences of which have been felt for many decades, while the greatest harm is caused by accidents occurring in high latitudes. These include: pollution of the water area following an emergency oil spill, the likelihood of a fire or explosion both on board during transportation and in the port at terminals. Emergency situations may arise as a result of exposure to hard weather conditions, technical malfunctions of the vessel, collision with other vessels, pirate attacks, etc. The article analyzes the provisions of international acts of the greatest interest in the field of protection of the marine environment from hydrocarbon pollution, such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78), the International Convention for the Safety of Human Life at Sea (SOLAS 74/88), "International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code)". Proposals have been formulated to improve international and national regulation regarding the legal protection of the marine environment from oil pollution. Thus, it seems expedient to minimize the risks of emergency situations to think about combining the relevant provisions of all conventions into a single document, while eliminating gaps in both international regulation and national legislation in the field of marine transportation of hydrocarbons, to pay increased attention to environmental safety issues.

A goal-based approach for selecting a ship's polar class

Following the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code), ships operating in ice-covered polar waters must comply with an appropriate Polar Class (PC) or equivalent ice class standard. For the selection of an appropriate Polar Class, ship designers and operators are encouraged to use the Polar Operational Limit Assessment Risk Indexing System (POLARIS). A limitation of POLARIS is that it does not consider the extent to which a ship operates in various ice conditions, and thus also not the probabilistic nature of ice loading. To address this limitation, this article outlines a goal-based approach that is intended to complement POLARIS when selecting a ship's Polar Class. Following the proposed approach, the appropriateness of a ship's minimum required Polar Class as determined using POLARIS is evaluated by assessing the ship's long-term extreme ice loads, and by relating these to the design loads behind the considered Polar Class standard. To account for the probabilistic nature of ice loading, the approach calculates a ship's long-term extreme ice loads considering its intended operating profile and expected ice exposure. This is achieved by synthesising a modified version of the so-called event-maximum method, discrete-event simulations, and satellite ice data. The utility of the proposed approach is demonstrated through a case study, in which it is used as a complement to POLARIS to select an appropriate Polar Class for a double-acting ship intended for year-round independent operations along the northeast coast of Canada.

The evaluation of the Polar Code by the survey conducted with those who have sailed in polar regions, and suggestions for further improvement

There is much evidence that ongoing global climate change has tremendous impacts on the Arctic and Antarctic environment. One of the significant effects of global climate change on polar regions is diminishing sea ice extent (SIE). Decreased SIE results in accessibility for maritime activities, which pose more threats to the fragile polar environment. For the preservation of the polar environment and the safety of the ships, International Maritime Organization (IMO) developed the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code (PC)). The mandatory PC took a long time to develop from guidelines for Arctic waters to compulsory Code of both polar regions. Although there are similarities between the Arctic and Antarctic, such as the remoteness and harshness of the environment, the differences in physical, political, and legal conditions raise questions about the PC's adequacy. In this study, we evaluate the PC within the survey scope we conducted with the people who have sailing experience in these regions and make suggestions to develop the PC further.

Investigating the Polar Code’s function-based requirements for life-saving appliances and arrangements, and the performance of survival equipment in cold climate conditions – test of SOLAS approved desalting apparatus at low temperatures

ABSTRACT As the sea ice extent steadily decreases, the Arctic region is simultaneously experiencing extensive growth in commercial shipping activities, in areas which previously were considered inaccessible for most ships during large periods of the year, increasing the probability of accidents or incidents occurring. The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (The Polar Code) states that resources shall be provided to support survival following abandoning a ship; desalting apparatus is proposed for the provision of the recommended amount of freshwater. However, previous studies have shown that the expected performance criteria for survival equipment are significantly reduced in cold climate conditions. In this paper, we present and discuss the results of testing SOLAS approved desalting apparatus at low temperatures in a controlled and enclosed environment, studying the equipment's performance capabilities.

“Green shipping” and the problem of sustainable use of maritime transport

Green is consistently associated with the political, legal and organizational efforts of various organizations in the area of preservation and sustainable development of the environment. Having analyzes the topic, the author reflects on the legal issues of preventing marine pollution related to the introduction of the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, the requirements to the “chemistry of pollutants”, technical regulations aimed at the expel of certain ships based on their technical characteristics. The author also attempted to formulate the key statements within the framework of the concept of ecologically sustainable development of the marine transport sector. The subject of this research is the legal relations in the area of regulation of the ecological use of maritime transport. Research methodology employs the analysis of national legal sources; formal-legal, comparative-legal and systemic-logical methods. Law of the Sea has been actively struggling against marine pollution since the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL) of 1954, creating and constantly improving the responsibilities within the framework of International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The scientific novelty is defined by the absence of analogous works in the Russian literature on the subject. The relevance of this work is substantiated by the need for adoption of legal measures aimed at ensuring efforts on amending the state maritime policy, considering that the implementation of the standards of International Maritime Organization effective since 2020, will result in expel of a considerable number of ships from the maritime sector, as well as and increase the sea freight rates.

Survival through coping strategies for resilience following a ship accident in polar waters

On 19 June 1989, the cruise liner Maksim Gorkiy hit an ice floe southwest of Svalbard. The passengers and parts of her crew abandoned the ship. In a massive rescue operation 953 crew and passengers were rescued, in addition to the ship. This is only one of several examples of serious ship accidents in polar waters.The aim of the article is to study coping strategies for resilience among a group of crew members and passengers taking part in the SARex2 exercise, coping strategies that may contribute to a group’s survival following a ship accident and the subsequent evacuation of the ship.The empirical findings stem from participant observation during SARex2 in Svalbard in 2017, a review of the requirements specified in the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (IMO, 2014) and a literature review on the special challenges of operating in these waters. The theoretical lenses are teamwork, sense making and resilience.The article starts with a presentation of the challenges of operating in polar waters, as well as some relevant parts of the Polar Code. Then the conceptual framework of the study is presented, followed by information on the SARex2 exercise and methodology. Then follows a discussion of coping strategies for resilience following a ship accident in these waters. Finally, some concluding remarks are presented, on how to transfer a group of crew members and passengers into a team required for survival after a ship accident and the subsequent evacuation of the ship in polar waters.

Polar Code application areas in the Arctic

The improvement of the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) has been a long process and is based on the previous International Maritime Organization (IMO) instruments. It aims at mitigating the risks of harsh environments and weather conditions for safe operations and the prevention and control of maritime pollution from ships in the polar regions. It is essential to understand the challenges pertaining to polar circumstances and reasons for maritime casualties in order to mitigate future risks. While maritime activities are increasing in the Arctic, little attention is being paid to some of the northernmost regions that are greatly influenced by the Arctic climate and are excluded from the Polar Code. The marine boundaries of the Arctic region have been defined differently by the Arctic Council Working Groups based on physical, geographical, and ecological characteristics. However, the boundaries of the Polar Code are not compatible with any of them. In this study, we analyze the extent of sea ice changes and the maritime traffic in the high north and also evaluate maritime safety in the frame of the application of the Polar Code boundaries in the Arctic.

A Framework for Integrating Life-Safety and Environmental Consequences into Conventional Arctic Shipping Risk Models

The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) was adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and entered into force on 1 January 2017. It provides a comprehensive treatment of topics relevant to ships operating in Polar regions. From a design perspective, in scenarios where ice exposure and the consequences of ice-induced damage are the same, it is rational to require the same ice class and structural performance for such vessels. Design requirements for different ice class vessels are provided in the Polar Code. The Polar Operational Limit Assessment Risk Indexing System (POLARIS) methodology provided in the Polar Code offers valuable guidance regarding operational limits for ice class vessels in different ice conditions. POLARIS has been shown to well reflect structural risk, and serves as a valuable decision support tool for operations and route planning. At the same time, the current POLARIS methodology does not directly account for the potential consequences resulting from a vessel incurring ice-induced damage. While two vessels of the same ice class operating in the same ice conditions would have similar structural risk profiles, the overall risk profile of each vessel will depend on the magnitude of consequences, should an incident or accident occur. In this paper, a new framework is presented that augments the current POLARIS methodology to model consequences. It has been developed on the premise that vessels of a given class with higher potential life-safety, environmental, or socio-economic consequences should be operated more conservatively. The framework supports voyage planning and real-time operational decision making through assignment of operational criteria based on the likelihood of ice-induced damage and the potential consequences. The objective of this framework is to enhance the safety of passengers and crews and the protection of the Arctic environment and its stakeholders. The challenges associated with establishing risk perspectives and evaluating consequences for Arctic ship operations are discussed. This methodology proposes a pragmatic pathway to link ongoing scientific research with risk-based methods to help inform recommended practices and decision support tools. Example scenarios are considered to illustrate the flexibility of the methodology in accounting for varied risk profiles for different vessel types, as well as incorporating input from local communities and risk and environmental impact assessments.

Implementation of the Polar Code: Functional Requirements Regulating Ship Operations in Polar Waters

In 2017, the The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) – a set of function-based regulations applicable to Arctic and Antarctic waters, with the goal of increasing awareness and improving safety for ship operations in polar waters – entered into force. This article examines the Polar Code’s contribution to the establishment of new standards and guidelines, with the problem under discussion being the extent to which the function-based regulations contribute to enhancing safety for ship operations in the Arctic, given that maritime activities in these waters are associated with great risks and uncertainties. The article gives a historical review, elucidating the background leading to the development of the Polar Code, followed by a review of the structure and key principles of the regulations. Further, ship traffic in the Arctic region and those subject to the Polar Code are examined, followed by a summary of findings and experiences from three survival exercises (SARex I, II and III), performed in northern areas around Svalbard between 2016 and 2018. The article concludes that safe ship operations depend on those subject to the regulations conducting thorough operational risk assessments that cover all potential hazards, in order to mitigate sufficiently. Further, the presence of authorities is found to be crucial, with validation of the adequacy and the dimensioning of the implemented measures being of the essence.

Analysis of a Collision-Energy-Based Method for the Prediction of Ice Loading on Ships

Ships designed for operation in Polar waters must be approved in accordance with the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code), adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). To account for ice loading on ships, the Polar Code includes references to the International Association of Classification Societies’ (IACS) Polar Class (PC) standards. For the determination of design ice loads, the PC standards rely upon a method applying the principle of the conservation of momentum and energy in collisions. The method, which is known as the Popov Method, is fundamentally analytical, but because the ship–ice interaction process is complex and not fully understood, its practical applications, including the PC standards, rely upon multiple assumptions. In this study, to help naval architects make better-informed decisions in the design of Arctic ships, and to support progress towards goal-based design, we analyse the effect of the assumptions behind the Popov Method by comparing ice load predictions, calculated by the Method with corresponding full-scale ice load measurements. Our findings indicate that assumptions concerning the modelling of the ship–ice collision scenario, the ship–ice contact geometry and the ice conditions, among others, significantly affect how well the ice load prediction agrees with the measurements.

Training for Ships Operating in Polar Waters - Opening a Series of Lectures at JMETS

Training for Ships Operating in Polar Waters - Opening a Series of Lectures at JMETS

International Convention and National Legislation for Ships Operating in Polar Waters

International Convention and National Legislation for Ships Operating in Polar Waters

A Study on the Laws and Regulations for the Prevention of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Arctic Waters: Focusing on International Code of Safety for Ships Operating in Polar Waters(Polar Code)

A Study on the Laws and Regulations for the Prevention of Vessel-Source Pollution in the Arctic Waters: Focusing on International Code of Safety for Ships Operating in Polar Waters(Polar Code)

The elephant in the room: article 234 of the Law of the Sea Convention and the Polar Code as an incompletely theorised agreement

The International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) is a new chapter in the regulation of Arctic shipping. This international legal instrument can affect the interpretation and practice of national coastal State legislation under article 234, the Arctic exception in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Relying on documents from the IMO, this paper examines the negotiation of the relationship of these two instruments, investigating the question: how was it possible to agree on the Polar Code while avoiding a resolution of the deep conflict between Arctic coastal State jurisdiction and freedom of navigation? While early debates directly concerned article 234, the peculiarity of later discussions, which focused on savings clauses regulating relationships between instruments, was the lack of reference to this article’s provisions. Agreement was possible due to indirect negotiation of this issue, through the use of second best arguments and analogies. It is submitted that precisely the lack of discussion and resolution of this issue allowed for the possibility of completing the Polar Code. This qualifies the Polar Code as an incompletely theorised agreement in deliberative theory.

Safety of Navigation in the Arctic

Abstract This article presents the results of research based on analysis of ice conditions on the Arctic Sea in recent years and consequences of these changes. The Arctic ice extent are changed due to global warming. Reducing the ice surface leads to intensification of the navigation of the waters of the Arctic Sea, resulting in a significant reduction of the distance between the ports of Europe and East Asia and the North and South Americas. This phenomenon is conducive to the opening of new shipping routes leading through the Arctic Sea. After the entry into force of 1st January, 2017 The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) is expected to improve the safety of conducting the navigation of the waters. Analysis of maritime accidents in the Arctic waters shows that the number of accidents has a growing trend, however, last year brings them a significant decreasing.