Ship Ballast Research Articles

Invertebrate resting stages in residual ballast sediment of transoceanic ships

Ballast water has been the primary vector of nonindigenous species (NIS) to the Laurentian Great Lakes over the past 45 years. Although ballast water exchange regulations were implemented in 1993 to reduce propagule loads, new NIS continue to be discovered. A possible explanation for this trend is the importance of alternative vectors, such as residual ballast of ships claiming "no ballast on board". We investigate resting stages of invertebrates in residual ballast sediments of transoceanic ships as a possible vector of NIS to the Great Lakes. To model the introduction effort potentially associated with this vector, we collected sediment samples from 39 ships entering the Great Lakes and measured the density, viability, and species richness of resting stages contained therein. Viable resting stages of NIS were found in 32% of ships, at a mean density of 3.0 × 105·ship–1. Temperature, salinity, and removal of eggs from sediment during incubation had a significant impact on total abundance and species richness of hatched taxa. A total of 21 NIS were identified, consisting exclusively of rotifers and cladocerans. Salinity of residual ballast water and geographic region of ballast uptake were predictive variables for profiling invasion risk due to ships, although explained variability was low.

Viability of invertebrate diapausing eggs exposed to saltwater: implications for Great Lakes’ ship ballast management

International shipping has been the dominant vector of nonindigenous species introductions to the Laurentian Great Lakes over the past century. Apparent ballast-mediated invasions have been recorded in recent years, despite the implementation of voluntary ballast water exchange regulations in 1989. Since unregulated ‘no-ballast-on-board’ vessels currently dominate inbound traffic to the Great Lakes, it has been proposed that live or dormant organisms contained in residual ballast of these vessels may be partially responsible for recent invasions. Alternatively, euryhaline species may pose a significant invasion threat because they can potentially survive ballast exchange. In this study, we explored whether exposure to open-ocean water (32&) reduced the viability of invertebrate diapausing eggs in ballast sediments. Sediments collected from three transoceanic ships and from three freshwater habitats were exposed to open-ocean seawater. Egg viability, assessed as the abundance of taxa hatched between exposed and unexposed sediments, was not affected by saltwater exposure in any experiment. Species richness of hatched diapausing eggs was reduced by saltwater exposure in only one of seven trials. Our results indicate that oligostenohaline zooplankton may pose an invasion risk because their diapausing eggs are largely resistant to exposure to open-ocean saltwater.

Ship ballast water as a main vector of marine introductions in the Mediterranean Sea

Marine invasive species are currently recognized as one of the most significant threats to global biodiversity. Marine bioinvasions are more likely in the Mediterranean Sea because of its wide temperature range, degraded habitats, historical and high volume of shipping traffic, and high occurrence of aquaculture. One of the main vectors of marine introductions globally and Mediterranean-wide is commercial shipping. Of the 3,000–4,000 species transferred around the world via commercial vessels, approximately 30% of these species may have been redistributed in the Mediterranean. Ships and marine invasive species arriving in the Mediterranean are mainly from temperate to cold-water regions. Standardized research and management approaches between countries are required to address the threat of ballast water borne marine invasives on a global scale. Regionally, a Mediterranean program involving the different states is currently needed to develop a common line of research and management operations.

Future increase in harmful algal blooms in the North Sea due to climate change

In temperate seas such as the North Sea harmful (toxic) algal blooms will probably increase as a result of climate change. This conclusion was reached after investigating the projected effect of climate change for the year 2100 in Dutch coastal waters (4 degrees C temperature rise and increased water column stratification) on the growth rates of six harmful and two non-harmful phytoplankton species. Micro algae form the basis of the marine food chain. However, toxin-producing species may seriously disrupt the food web and lead to fish kills and human intoxication. Two species with estimated doubled growth rates in 2100, F. japonica and C. antiqua, entered Europe via ship's ballast water or shellfish imports. This stresses the need to legally regulate such invasion routes in order to prevent the import of novel species. Future toxic phytoplankton blooms may further devaluate ecosystem deliverables such as fish production or recreational use. This devaluation can be estimated by monetary value assessments that are needed in cost-benefit analyses for policy guidance. The lack of understanding of future climate, ecosystem functioning and its response to climate change calls for a scientific effort to improve our knowledge on present day coastal ecosystem functioning and its resilience.

Preconstruction Priming: A Cost-Effective Solution to Painting Ship Ballast Tanks

In both Asia and Europe, preconstruction primers (PCP) are routinely used and retained as an integral part of the coating system. The retention of PCPs can significantly reduce the painting cost of new ship builds. The cost of protective coatings (paint) application in new construction can be upwards of 10% of the total ship cost. The process is labor intensive; therefore, it is logical that most savings are derived from reducing labor steps. Retaining PCP eliminates the necessity of a second blast operation, thus reducing labor cost and hazardous waste disposal cost. This paper addresses the feasibility of retaining PCP as the permanent primer for protective coatings systems applied in such high-performance areas as exterior hull, underwater bottom, and most importantly ballast tanks. Should the retention of PCP be proven as a viable option, the process of coatings application can be improved resulting in significant cost savings. Spending of new construction dollars will not be necessary to remove the PCP prior to the application of high-performance coating and lining systems. The test program discussed in this paper was based on work sponsored by the National Shipbuilding Research Program Advanced Shipbuilding Enterprise (NSRPAES) and the US Navy. The Surface Preparation and Coatings Panel, SP3, of the Ship Production Committee formulated the program and provided direction during the course of the work. The Ship Production Committee is one of SNAME's nine technical and research committees, and consists of the chairman supported by the ship production major initiative panel chairs and selected others.

Bacteriological examination of ballast water in Singapore Harbour by flow cytometry with FISH

In this study the concentrations of total bacteria, enterobacteria, Vibrio spp., and E. coli have been compared for ballast water samples taken from ships in Singapore Harbour. The cell concentrations were enumerated using FISH and flow cytometry. The data were highly variable, reflecting the many influences upon ballast water as it is utilized in the shipping industry. The concentration of bacterial species was determined as a proportion of the total concentration of cells for the ballast water sampled. For the ballast water sampled these concentrations were 0.67–39.55% for eubacteria, 0–2.46% for enterobacteria, 0.18–35.82% for Vibrio spp., and 0–2.46% for E. coli. Using FISH and flow cytometry, an informative determination of the bacterial hazards of ship ballast water can be made.

Micropogonias undulatus(L.), another exotic arrival in European waters

Two living specimens of the Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus have been caught during recent years in Belgian waters (Southern Bight of the North Sea): one in August 1998 as a by‐catch of the commercial shrimp fishery in coastal waters, another in October 2001 on a tidal flat in the brackish part of the Scheldt Estuary. These represent the first records of this north‐west Atlantic species in European waters, and their occurrence is likely to be due to transportation in ship ballast water.

Studies of the Effect of Hydroxyl Radicals on Photosynthesis Pigments of Phytoplankton in Ship's Ballast Water

AbstractA pilot-scale system of 20 t/h for the treatment of ship’s ballast water and the setup of dissolved hydroxyl radical was introduced in this paper. With this experimental system, the kill efficiencies of bacteria, mono-algae, protozoan reach 100% within 2.67 s when dissolved OH· concentration is 0.6 mg/L. At the same time, the effect of hydroxyl radicals on the photosynthesis pigments of phytoplankton was done. The results indicate that the contents of chlorophyl-a, chlorophyl-b, chlorophyl-c and carotenoid are decreased to 35 ~ 64% within 8.0 s further to the lowest limit of test after 5 min. When dissolved OH· ratio concentration is 0.68 mg/L, the attenuation efficiencies of photosynthesis pigment are 100%. Therefore the invasive marine species can be killed in the process of the inputting and discharge ship’s ballast water.

Polar pedunculate barnacles piggy-back on pycnogona, penguins, pinniped seals and plastics

There is much concern about the potential for invasive species to enter the only marine region left with no known exotics - the Southern Ocean. Attention has focused on planktonic larval travel, shipping (ballast water and hull fouling) and marine debris as transport mechanisms. There is, however, another source of transport for biota across the Polar Frontal Zone - hitchhiking on megafauna, such as seals. In this study we report the frequency and burden of barnacles Lepaa australis attached to Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella coming ashore to breed at Bird Island, South Georgia. In the austral summers of 2001/2002, 2002/2003 and 2003/2004, female fur seals with barnacles attached arrived at Bird Island in late November/early December and peaked in mid-December. About 4 % of female fur seals carried barnacles, with the mean burden being - 10 barnacles. Pedunculate barnacles seem, therefore, to be entering the Southern Ocean in large numbers every year in the South Georgia region and probably elsewhere. We also found adult barnacles attached to a macaroni penguin and (perhaps the furthest and fastest travelling marine larvae) young stages (cyprids) on the leg ring of a wandering albatross. Barnacle plates provide a hard substratum to which other fouling marine organisms can attach, and thus travel as secondary hitch-hikers. We found polychaete worms (Spirorbidae) and a bryozoan colony (Ceneporella antarctica) encrusting a stalked barnacle attached to a pycnogonan (Collosendeis scotti). We suggest that fouling hitch-hiking barnacles (on migrating megafauna) offer a considerable natural mechanism for potential colonisers of Antarctic waters, This is of particular importance at the current time given the context of strong regional warming in the Scotia Arc-Antarctic Peninsula region.

Food poisoning associated with biotoxins in fish and shellfish.

In recent times the number of blooms of algae that produce toxins has increased in frequency, intensity and geographical distribution. This review describes some of the illnesses caused by fish and shellfish contaminated with toxins produced by marine algae and by bacteria. The increase in toxic algal blooms may be a result of increased awareness, aquaculture, eutrophication, or transport of cysts in ship ballast. Improved chemical methods for the detection of algal toxins are now being developed, and so the number of toxins recognized is increasing. Toxicological data on some of these algal toxins are lacking. Despite the increase in occurrence of algal toxins, scombrotoxic poisoning remains the most common cause of food poisoning associated with the consumption of fish and shellfish. This may be real or it may be a reflection of lack of suitable tests for algal toxins or under-recognition by workers in health care. The major problem worldwide in this field is the lack of pure toxins for use in developing and standardizing chemical methods for toxin detection. Such methods would permit increased testing of both food and clinical specimens, and hence would prevent the entry of toxic food into the food chain and increase laboratory confirmation of incidents of illness.

Intracellular damage and death caused by protease inhibitors on Alexandrium catenella natural cysts and vegetative cells

Proteases from a Chilean clone of Alexandrium catenella were studied using gelatin–zymogram gel and protease fluorescent substrate to facilitate their visual identification in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Proteolytic activity bands were grouped arbitrarily according to their molecular weight as P1 (150 and 120 kDa), P2 (100 kDa), P3 (70 and 65 kDa), P4 (60, 55 and 50 kDa) and P5 (25 kDa). Protease inhibitors affect differentially P2 and P3 proteases. Only P2 activity increased in the presence of 1–10 phenanthroline (σPhe), pepstatin A (pepA), leupeptin (leup) and phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), while P2 and P3 become inactivated with ρ-aminobenzamidine. The protease inhibitors lethal dose was determined by incubating cells with different concentration of the protease inhibitor and evaluating their effect on cell viability. Furthermore, cells treated for 4 h with one lethal dose of 1–10 phenanthroline and ρ-aminobenzamidine, caused serious damage to the intracellular vacuolar system and nuclear material. Live cysts also die when treated independently with these two protease inhibitors. Future work will be aimed at chemically designing species-specific inhibitors for their potential use in killing cysts transported within the sediment of ship ballast water before washing them off to the environment.

Dispersion of discharged ship ballast water in Vancouver Harbour, Juan De Fuca Strait, and offshore of the Washington Coast

The dispersion of harmful nonindigenous biological organisms that may be present in discharged ship ballast water is an issue of international interest. The present paper examines this issue as it applies to Vancouver Harbour and Juan de Fuca Strait, British Columbia, and the adjacent U.S. waters. The objective is to determine whether potential mechanisms exist to transport viable organisms that might be present in discharged ballast water to favourable reproductive habitats within British Columbian coastal waters. The study applied three-dimensional harmonic finite element models to generate representative tidal, atmospheric, and density-driven flow fields. Particle-tracking techniques were used to simulate representative trajectories of passive and active ballast water organisms discharged at existing deballasting sites. It was determined that the safest deballasting sites are off the west coast. Under normal conditions, organisms move southward (summer) or northward (winter) in the Shelf Break Current and only under strong eastward or northward winds are they transported to the Washington or Vancouver Island shorelines. Key words: ship ballast water, discharge, microorganism, trajectory, Vancouver Harbour, West Coast.

PCR detection of a newly emerged pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 pathogen in pure cultures and seeded waters from the Gulf of Mexico.

This study describes the optimization of PCR parameters and testing of a wide number of microbial species to establish a highly specific and sensitive PCR-based method of detection of a newly emerged pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 strain in pure cultures and seeded waters from the Gulf of Mexico (gulf water). The selected open reading frame 8 (ORF8) DNA-specific oligonucleotide primers tested were found to specifically amplify all 35 pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 pandemic isolates, whereas these primers were not found to detectably amplify two strains of V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 that were isolated prior to the 1996 outbreaks, 122 non-O3:K6 strains of V. parahaemolyticus, 198 non-V. parahaemolyticus spp., or 16 non-Vibrio bacterial spp. The minimum level of detection by the PCR method was 1 pg of purified genomic DNA or 10(2) ORF8-positive V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 cells in 100 ml of water. The effectiveness of this method for the detection of ORF8-positive isolates in environmental samples was tested in gulf water seeded with 10-fold serial dilutions of this pathogen. A detection level of 10(3) cells per 100 ml of gulf water was achieved. Also, the applicability of this methodology was tested by the detection of this pathogen in gulf water incubated at various temperatures for 28 days. This PCR approach can potentially be used to monitor with high specificity and well within the required range of sensitivity the occurrence and distribution of this newly emerged pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 strain in coastal, marine, and ship ballast waters. Early detection of V. parahaemolyticus O3:K6 will help increase seafood safety and decrease the risk of infectious outbreaks caused by this pathogen.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF ENHYDROSOMA AND A NEW RECORD OF ENHYDROSOMA LACUNAE (COPEPODA: HARPACTICOIDA: CLETODIDAE) FROM THE EASTERN TROPICAL PACIFIC

A number of harpacticoid copepods were collected during two series of sampling campaigns in a coastal lagoon and in a brackish system in northern and southern Sinaloa (northwestern Mexico), respectively. Four enhydrosomid species were recognized. Three of them are new to science. Enhydrosoma lacunae is reported for the sixth time. This record extends the distribution of the species from the Caribbean Sea to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, and it is suggested that it is an invasive species borne in water ballast of ships. Enhydrosoma parapropinquum sp. nov. bears a strong resemblance to E. propinquum, but these species are different in shape of the caudal rami and female fifth leg. Enhydrosoma casoae sp. nov. and E. solitarium sp. nov. showed to be closely related to E. vicinum. These three species seem to be related by the structure and armature formula of the female fifth swimming leg. Enhydrosoma casoae sp. nov. and Enhydrosoma solitarium sp. nov. can be separated from each other by the ventral spinular ornamentation of urosome and spinular ornamentation of female P5 baseoendopod.

Species Richness and Invasion Vectors: Sampling Techniques and Biases

During a European Union Concerted Action study on species introductions, an intercalibration workshop on ship ballast water sampling techniques considered various phytoplankton and zooplankton sampling methods. For the first time, all the techniques presently in use worldwide were compared using a plankton tower as a model ballast tank spiked with the brine shrimp and oyster larvae while phytoplankton samples were taken simultaneously in the field (Helgoland Harbour, Germany). Three cone-shaped and 11 non-cone shaped plankton nets of different sizes and designs were employed. Net lengths varied from 50 to 300 cm, diameters 9.7–50 cm, and mesh sizes 10–100 μm. Three pumps, a Ruttner sampler, and a bucket previously used in ballast water sampling studies were also compared. This first assessment indicates that for sampling ballast water a wide range of techniques may be needed. Each method showed different results in efficiency and it is unlikely that any of the methods will sample all taxa. Although several methods proved to be valid elements of a hypothetical `tool box' of effective ship sampling techniques. The Ruttner water sampler and the pump P30 provide suitable means for the quantitative phytoplankton sampling, whereas other pumps prevailed during the qualitative trial. Pump P15 and cone-shaped nets were the best methods used for quantitative zooplankton sampling. It is recommended that a further exercise involving a wider range of taxa be examined in a larger series of mesocosms in conjunction with promising treatment measures for managing ballast water.

Heterogeneous zooplankton distribution in a ship's ballast tanks

We examined the vertical distribution of zooplankton in a ship's ballast water. Some crustacean taxa were more abundant at 0.5 m and 2 m than at 6 m depths. Non-random distributions affect population size estimations and are an important consideration for invasion risk assessment.

Ship ballast water ultrasonic treatment

Ballast water is treated by applying ultrasonic frequencies to the water to kill organisms entrained in the water such as diatoms, veligers, fish larvae, plankton, and microorganisms, preventing the introduction of non-indigenous species between ports-of-call. The ballast water is circulated through a ballast treatment system. A pump is connected to a tube lined with a piezoelectric material for aiding in transmitting the ultrasonic frequencies connected to one or more ballast tanks of a ship. The use of the piezoelectric material as a lining allows a broad range of sound wavelengths and energy levels to be transmitted greater distances before problems with uniform sound penetration and energy loss within the sound field occur. Additionally, spatially-controllable, continuous constructive interference zones may be generated within the piezoelectric-lined tubes to specifically target the particular organisms entrained within the ballast water being treated. The treatment system includes a transducer pipe connected to diffusers and shrouds. The diffusers are closed at ends not connected to the pipe. The treatment system is provided in the ballast intake/drain device to route the ballast water through the treatment system. Ballast water is supplied through inlets in the shrouds into the diffuser which circulate the water through the tube which is lined with piezoelectric transducer material and then exhausted after treatment. The ultrasonic waves destroy organisms and prevent transfer of non-indigenous species between ports.

Ballast water deoxygenation can prevent aquatic introductions while reducing ship corrosion

One of the most important mechanisms for the introduction of aquatic nuisance species is transport in ship ballast waters. Although several ballast tank treatments to prevent transport of aquatic organisms appear promising, all existing approaches will result in significant costs to the shipping industry. This study describes a treatment that can dramatically reduce the survivorship of most organisms found in ballast waters while providing economic benefits to ship owners. Purging of oxygen from ballast tanks with nitrogen was recently found to be a cost-effective technique for reducing corrosion and therefore extending ship life. We tested the tolerance of larvae of known invasive invertebrate species to low levels of oxygen, comparable with those resulting from the anticorrosion treatment, and detected significant levels of mortality. Two separate literature reviews further support the conclusion that few organisms will be able to withstand extended periods of exposure to nitrogen-treated ballast water. This novel deoxygenation technique may therefore have direct benefits to both marine conservation and the shipping industry.

New and little‐known Mallomonas (Synurophyceae) taxa from Ontario, Canada

Mallomonas tonsurata var. coroniferoides var. nov. is described on the basis of material from four sites in Ontario Canada. It differs from M. tonsurata var. tonsurata by having posterior scales possessing a tubular outgrowth with a toothed, crownlike margin. Preliminary descriptions are provided for three other apparently undescribed Mallomonas species. However, complete description and formal naming of these three new species cannot be done at this time owing to omission of certain detailed structural information presently not available in the existing material. New information on the distribution and morphology of the peculiar M. retrorsa is also reported, and two other species, M. vannigera and M. clavus are reported for the first time from the Western Hemisphere; however, there is an unpublished report of M. vannigera from Nova Scotia. Because M. vannigera is common in the Baltic, it is possible that its discovery in North America indicates relatively recent trans‐Atlantic transport in ship ballast water as has been demonstrated recently for many other “exotic” protistan species.

Field-Scale Demonstration of Electrocoagulation and Enhanced Media Filtration for Treatment of Shipyard Storm Water

The use of electrocoagulation and enhanced media filtration was evaluated for the treatment of storm water runoff from shipyards. A 15-gallon per minute (gpm) fieldscale unit was operated at Litton Avondale Industries Shipyard in New Orleans, Louisiana. The study indicated that electrocoagulation and enhanced media filtration is a cost-effective technology for treatment of shipyard storm water runoff. This technology is simple to operate and has the potential to provide a cost-effective means to treat various process wastewaters generated in shipyards. The study also indicates a need for further research on the management of solid residuals generated in the treatment process. Further research is also needed to assess the effectiveness of this technology for the treatment of other related waste streams such as ship ballast water and bilge water.