Shihu Gold Research Articles

Footprints of ore fluid pathway and implications to mineral exploration in the Shihu Gold Deposit, North China: Evidence from short wave infrared spectroscopy of illitic alteration rocks

Most hydrothermal ore deposits have experienced multiple stages of hydrothermal activities and the overprinting makes the footprints of ore fluid pathway difficult to identify, which prevents us from targeting the mineral resource effectively. In this paper, the altered wall-rocks from all accessible underground tunnels of No.101 lode in the Shihu Gold Deposit, North China were investigated by the combined methods of petrographic microscopy and short wave infrared spectroscopy (SWIR). The results show that there are three types of alteration in the Shihu Gold Deposit, i.e., the proximal illitic alteration, the transitional chloritic alteration and the distal propylitic alteration. The wavelength (wvl) of the 2200 nm absorption features (2200wvl) of the illitic alteration rocks around ore bodies are shorter than those from the barren areas, suggestive of the compositional variation of illites derived from the multiple stages of hydrothermal fluids. The domains with higher absorption depth at 1400 nm, 1900 nm and 2200 nm (1400D, 1900D and 2200D) are spatially coincident with the economic ore bodies, which is well in accordance with the field truth that the gold mineralization in the Shihu mining district is intimately related to illitic alteration. The band ratio of 2200D/1900D, which is regarded as the proxy to illite crystallinity, is positively related to the temperature of fluid inclusions. The coincidence between low crystallinity and gold mineralization reflects the fact that fluid temperature during the main mineralization stage was relatively low compared to those of previous stages. Detailed investigation indicated that the economic ore bodies mainly occurred in the structural dilation domains, i.e., the widened portions of the ore-controlling structure were more suitable for the fluids migration and probably acted as the fluid up-flow zones. Therefore, SWIR spectroscopy of illite is a powerful tool to trace the ore fluid pathway, which is crucial to the understanding and exploration of gold mineralization.Based on the geological significance of the SWIR signatures and the investigation of the ore-forming conditions, it can be concluded that there are two fluid up-flow zones in No.101 lode, one of which lies on the north of No.13 cross section and centered at No.7 cross section, whereas the other on the south of No.17 cross section and centered at No.27 cross section. As a result, two steeply dipped ore bodies were formed along the up-flow zones. According to this ore-forming analysis, the location centered at No.47 cross section with elevation below 150 m would be an ideal site for the formation of a third ore body. This has recently been verified by underground drillings in the Shihu Gold Deposit (Yougang Zhang, pers. commun. 2020).

The geochemistry of Au–Ag minerals and base‐metal sulphides as indicators for gold precipitation: Case study of the Shihu gold deposit, central North China Craton

The Shihu quartz vein‐type gold deposit, the largest gold deposit in the central North China Craton, occurs within wall rocks of Neoarchean TTG (tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite) gneiss and shows a close relationship with the early Cretaceous Mapeng granitoid pluton and various intermediate–mafic dykes. The occurrence, morphology, composition, and precipitation mechanism of the Au–Ag minerals are short of research, which is the purpose of this study. The primary mineral assemblage of orebody contains quartz, calcite, and base‐metal sulphides including pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and minor pyrrhotite and enargite. The Au–Ag minerals can be classified into three distinct types, namely, (a) quartz‐hosted, (b) pyrite‐hosted, and (c) base‐metal sulphidehosted, corresponding to formation sequence. Electron microprobe analysis indicates that these Au–Ag minerals show fineness (=Au/[Au + Ag] × 1,000) ranging from 976 to 366 with an average of 667 and are rich in Bi, Te, and Hg while deficient of Cu, As, and Se. Bismuth and tellurium in the Au–Ag minerals show a linear relationship with Au, whereas in the coexisted sulphides are almost below detection limits. We suggest that Bi and Te fundamentally influenced the transportation, enrichment, and precipitation of gold as scavengers to concentrate and deposit gold at the location with an “appropriate distance” from magma. Phase analyses of native bismuth and Bi–Te minerals included in pyrite, reported for the first time in Shihu Gold deposit, imply that the gold precipitation witnessed the ore‐forming fluid evolution with log fTe2 decreasing from approximately −11 to approximately −15 and log fS2 increasing from approximately −13 to more than −11. Mineralogical mapping with the fineness of Au–Ag minerals (fineness contours) suggest that the ore‐forming fluids came from the deep earth beneath the north of the mining area with excellent gold potential, which has been verified by later drilling.

Rb–Sr geochronology and geochemistry of pyrite from the Shihu gold deposit, central North China Craton: Implication for the timing and genesis of gold mineralization

The Shihu quartz vein‐type gold deposit in the central North China Craton occurs within Neoarchean TTG (tonalite‐trondhjemite‐granodiorite) gneisses and shows spatial relationship with quartz diorite porphyry. The occurrence of the ore body is controlled by the N‐S fracture. Primary mineral assemblage of the ore body is composed of quartz, calcite, and base‐metal sulphides, including pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite. Eight pyrite samples from veins of the main mineralization stage yield an isochron age of 129 ± 3 Ma (MSWD = 1.6), coinciding with the major Early Cretaceous magmatic event, and associated lithospheric thinning recognized in the NCC. The (87Sr/86Sr)i values of the pyrite (0.7102 ± 0.0006) are lower than the continental crust mean value (0.719) and higher than that of the mantle initial ratio (0.707), suggesting mixed crust–mantle source for the metallogenic components. Three types of hydrothermal pyrite from the early to major ore‐forming stages were identified in the quartz vein, including Py(I) as disseminated euhedral grains, Py (II) as dense bulks, and Py (III) as intergrowth with base‐metal sulphides. Electron microprobe analysis of the pyrite grains indicates a trend from S‐deficient to S‐enriched and from Fe‐enriched to Fe‐deficient stages, suggesting an increase in sulphur fugacity and reducing conditions. The arsenic in pyrite shows decrease against increasing Au during Stages II and III, implying that As is not the only trigger of gold precipitation, but electrochemical‐geochemical barrier played a major role in the formation of the ore. The Co and Ni concentrations, as well as Co/Ni ratios in pyrite, are relatively high, which provide an additional clue to the link with the regional magmatic event. Combined with the textural features, we propose a wider potential for gold exploration in this region, linking the mineralization with a major transitional tectonic regime.

Timing of mineralization at the Shihu gold deposit in the middle segment of the Taihang Mountain, China

The Shihu gold deposit, located in the middle-south section of the core of the Fuping mantle branch structure, is hosted in the Archean Fuping Group and adjacent to the quartz diorite porphyrite. The gold deposit is the only large gold deposit with reserves of more than 30 tons gold discovered in western Hebei Province so far. In order to constrain the timing of mineralization of this ore deposit, this paper focuses on the isotopic dating of zircon and pyrite. Zircons in gold-bearing quartz veins are magmatic in origin and no hydrothermal zircon has been found in such quartz veins, indicating that zircons were derived from the wall rocks. U–Pb ages of zircons fall mainly in the two domains: 2492 ± 82 and 136 ± 4 Ma, respectively, indicative of the contribution of the Fuping-Group TTG gneiss and Yanshanian igneous rocks, respectively. The Re–Os isotopic compositions of pyrites in the gold-bearing quartz veins yield an isochron age of 127 ± 31 Ma. Combined with other dating results, we suggest that the main metallogenic age of the Shihu gold deposit is 120–127 Ma.

The Best Article Award 2015 of the Society of Resource Geology was presented to S.Wang, J.Hu, Y.Song, X.Cai and T.Wang for the following paper: Stable Isotopic Geochemical and Geochronological Constraints on the Formation of the Shihu Gold Deposit: The Intracontinental Metallogeny of the Taihang Tectonic Belt, Eastern China. Resource Geology, 65(3), 249–265

The Best Article Award 2015 of the Society of Resource Geology was presented to S.Wang, J.Hu, Y.Song, X.Cai and T.Wang for the following paper: Stable Isotopic Geochemical and Geochronological Constraints on the Formation of the Shihu Gold Deposit: The Intracontinental Metallogeny of the Taihang Tectonic Belt, Eastern China. Resource Geology, 65(3), 249–265

The Behavior of the Elements During the Alteration in the Shihu Gold Deposit, Taihang Mountains Belt, Eastern China

The Behavior of the Elements During the Alteration in the Shihu Gold Deposit, Taihang Mountains Belt, Eastern China

Laser Ablation ICP‐MS U‐Pb Zircon Geochronology of Granitoids and Quartz Veins in the Shihu Gold Mine, Taihang Orogen, North China: Timing of Gold‐mineralization and Tectonic Implications

AbstractThe Shihu gold deposit, situated in the Taihang Mesozoic orogen of the North China Craton (NCC), is hosted by ductile‐brittle faults within Archean metamorphic core complex. The deposit is characterized by gold‐bearing quartz‐polymetallic sulfides veins. The Mapeng granitoids stock and intermediate‐basic dikes intruded the metamorphic basement rocks, and are spatially related to gold mineralization. Detailed laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA ICP‐MS) U‐Pb zircon ages of the granitic rocks, dykes and mineralized quartz veins in the studied area reveal its magmatic and mineralized history. The mineralized quartz veins contain inherited zircons with ages of about 2.55 Ga and 1.84 Ga, probably coming from the basement. These two Precambrian events are coeval with those in other parts of the NCC. The Mapeng granitoid stock, the largest intrusion in the area, was emplaced at ca. 130 Ma, and is coeval with magmatic zircon populations from diorites and quartz diorite pophyrites in the same region. The ca. 130 Ma magmatism and gold mineralization were most likely related to an underplating event that took place in the Taihang orogen at Late Mesozoic. The timing of gold mineralization with respect to felsic magmatism in the area is similar to those observed in other major gold‐producing provinces in the NCC. This episode is simultaneous with those in the eastern margin of NCC, indicative of a widespread late Yanshanian metallogenic event that was a response to the Early Cretaceous lithosphere in the eastern NCC, in which the mesothermal gold deposits were formed from similar tectono‐magmatic environments.

Source and evolution of fluids in the Shihu gold deposit, Taihang Mountains, China: evidence from microthermometry, chemical composition and noble gas isotope of fluid inclusions

The well-known Shihu quartz vein-type Au deposit in the Taihang Mountains in the North China Craton (NCC) is hosted by ductile-brittle faults within the Neo-archean–Palaeo-proterozoic Fuping Group metamorphic complex. The deposit exhibit four stages of quartz veins: (1) quartz-K-feldspar-sericite; (2) quartz-pyrite; (3) quartz-polymetallic sulphide; and (4) quartz-carbonate ± pyrite. Three types of fluid inclusions in quartz are recognized in this study. Solid-bearing high-salinity (Type I) fluid inclusions have homogenization temperatures of up to 390 ºC and high salinities of 33–47 wt% NaCl equivalent. Two-phase H 2 O-rich (Type II) fluid inclusions homogenized between 129–396 ºC and have salinities of 1.7–12.5 wt% NaCl equivalent. Two/three-phase CO 2 -rich (Type III) fluid inclusions, which are abundant in auriferous quartz veins, have homogenization temperatures of 205–358 ºC and salinities of 1.63–7.64 wt% NaCl equivalent. Laser Raman spectroscopy and quadrupole mass spectrometry confirmed that the vapour phase in the fluid inclusions is dominated by CO 2 , H 2 S, CH 4 , C 2 H 4 , N 2 and Ar besides H 2 O, whereas the liquid phase is composed of Cl − , SO 4 2− , Na + , and K + with minor Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ . Fluid inclusions in pyrite associated with quartz ore-stages (2) and (3) have ΣREE values of 0.61–342.17 ppm with negative Ce, Eu and Y anomalies and LREE enrichment relative to HREE, generally indicating a crustal source of ore fluids. Helium isotope studies of fluid inclusions in pyrites associated with quartz ore-stages (2) and (3) yielded 3 He/ 4 He ratios of 0.12–0.93 Ra (Ra=1.4×10 −6 for air) and 40 Ar/ 36 Ar ratios of 3690–23678. The noble gas data suggest c . 10–20% mantle-derived ore fluids, reflecting an increased interaction of ore fluids with surrounding crustal rocks contributing additional 4 He to the fluids. The present data and various information from published works suggest that the Shihu Au deposit was formed during lithospheric thinning or decratonization beneath the Taihang Mountains. The fluids derived from the lower crust, formed due to partial melting and dehydration of the lithospheric mantle, were mixed with magmatic and meteoric waters, and finally precipitated Au and associated metals in the Shihu deposit.

Inhomogeneous lithospheric thinning in the central North China Craton: Zircon U–Pb and S–He–Ar isotopic record from magmatism and metallogeny in the Taihang Mountains

The large scale Mesozoic magmatism and related metallogeny in the Taihang Mountains (TM) provide important clues for the lithospheric thinning of the North China Craton (NCC). Among the ore deposits, the vein gold mineralization of Shihu in the Fuping region and the skarn ore deposit of Xishimen in the Wu'an region represent typical Mesozoic metallogeny in the TM. In the Shihu gold mine, the Mapeng batholith is dominantly composed of monzogranite and granodiorite, whereas, the Wu'an pluton in the Xishimen iron mine mainly comprises monzonite and diorite. Here we present zircon LA–ICP-MS U–Pb data from 8 samples which reveal the timing of magmatism in the TM as ca. 130Ma, which is contemporaneous with the large-scale metallogeny in the margins of the NCC. The δ34S values recorded in the sulfide minerals from the Shihu gold deposit and the Xishimen skarn iron deposit show a range of 2.2‰–5.0‰, and 11.6‰–18.7‰, respectively. Helium isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in pyrite from the Shihu gold deposit vary from 0.12 to 1.98Ra (where Ra is the 3He/4He ratio of air=1.39×10−6), with calculated mantle helium values of 1.4%–25%, whereas, those of the Xishimen skarn iron deposit range from 0.06 to 0.19Ra, with calculated mantle helium of 0.7%–2.2%. The S–He–Ar isotopic data suggest a lower crustal origin for the ore-forming components, with variable inputs of mantle source. The large population of inherited zircons in our samples, with 207Pb/206Pb ages ranging between 2500Ma and 1800Ma, also supports crustal participation. Our data reveal that the Shihu gold deposit witnessed greater mantle input than the Xishimen skarn iron deposit, suggesting that the continental lithosphere is markedly thinner under the Fuping region than that under the Wu'an region. Our interpretation is also supported by published data from two ultra-broadband high-precision magnetotelluric sounding profiles across the TM region showing a variation in the lithosphere thickness from 155km to 70km while moving from the south (Wu'an region) to the north (Fuping region). Our study suggests that inhomogeneous lithospheric thinning in the central NCC occurred at least as early as ca. 130Ma ago.

Minimum critical thickness of dike for ore-bearing fluid injection: A new approach applied to the Shihu gold deposit, Hebei Province, North China

According to the metallogenic theory by transmagmatic fluid (TMF), one magmatic intrusion is a channel of ore-bearing fluids, but not their source. Therefore, it is possible to use TMF’s ability for injection into and for escaping from the magmatic intrusion to evaluate its ore-forming potential. As the ore-bearing fluids cannot effectively inject into the magmatic intrusion when the magma fully crystallized, the cooling time and rates viscosity varied can be used to estimate the minimum critical thickness of the intrusion. One dimensional heat transfer model is used to determine the cooling time for three representative dikes of different composition (granite porphyry, quartz diorite and diabase) in the Shihu gold deposit. It also estimated the rates viscosity varied in these time interval. We took the thickness of dike at the intersection of the cooling time – thickness curve and the rates viscosity varied versus thickness curve as the minimum critical thickness. For the ore-bearing fluids effectively injecting into the magma, the minimum critical thicknesses for the three representative dikes are 33.45 m for granite porphyry, 8.22 m for quartz diorite and 1.02 m for diabase, indicating that ore-bearing dikes must be thicker than each value. These results are consistent with the occurrence of ore bodies, and thus they could be applied in practice. Based on the statistical relationship between the length and the width of dikes, these critical thicknesses are used to compute critical areas: 0.0003–0.0016 km2 for diabase, 0.014–0.068 km2 for quartz diorite and 0.011–0.034 km2 for granite porphyry. This implies that ore-bearing minor intrusions have varied areas corresponding to their composition. The numerical simulation has provided the theoretical threshold of exposed thickness and area of the ore-bearing intrusion. These values can be used to determine the ore-forming potentials of dikes.

Comparison between the Xishimen gold deposit and the Shihu gold deposit in western Hebei and analysis of the potential for ore exploration

The Xishimen gold deposit is located in the tectonic zone southeast to the Shihu gold deposit, both of which belong to the same orefield. Then, how is the prospecting potential for the Xishimen gold deposit? A comparison was made between the Xishimen gold deposit and the Shihu gold deposit on the basis of their geological background of metallogenesis, geological characteristics of the ore deposits, the sources of ore-forming materials, etc. The results showed that both the deposits possess many similarities in the respects mentioned above. And their metallogeneses can be compared. Therefore, there is great potential for ore prospection in the periphery or at the deep levels of the Xishimen gold deposit. Ore exploration should be well programmed on the basis of a better dissection of the tectonic setting of the orefield. A breakthrough in ore prospection of the Xishimen gold deposit will be of great instructive significance in regionally geological prospecting.

Significance of zircon trace element geochemistry, the Shihu gold deposit, western Hebei Province, North China

The Shihu gold deposit is characterized by gold-bearing quartz-polymetallic sulfides and quartz veins. Both Mapeng granitoids batholith and intermediate-basic dikes intruded the metamorphic basement rocks, and are spatially associated with gold mineralization. Trace element abundances in zircons from the Shihu gold deposit, determined by laser-ablation microprobe ICPMS analysis, are sensitive to source rock type and crystallization environment. Concentrations of 21 trace elements were determined for zircons from granitoid rocks, diorites, quartz diorite porphyrites and gold-bearing quartz veins revealed some elemental characteristics and chondrite-normalized trace element patterns from different samples. There were no distinctive differences in REE concentrations of zircons from plutonic rocks and quartz veins, indicating that they probably had the same origin. Relatively flat chondrite-normalized REE patterns with (Yb/Sm) N ratios less than 60 characterized zircons from quartz diorite porphyrites and quartz veins. The highest Nb/Ta ratios were found in zircons from quartz diorite porphyrites, whereas the lowest ratios were found in quartz vein zircons. The Nb/Ta ratios were broadly correlated with HREE+Y contents, and had weak positive correlations with the depth of the Eu negative anomalies. High values U up to 0.4% and Th up to 0.1%, as well as positive correlations with REE+Y characterized zircons from quartz vein. The lowest Th/U ratios of zircons present in quartz veins reflected the relatively high concentration of U in hydrothermal fluid, and high Pb concentrations only typified quartz vein grains relatively enriched in U and Th. Zircons from quartz diorite porphyrites showed the most pronounced Ce anomalies, whereas weak Ce anomalies were typical of zircons from quartz veins, in which Eu/Eu* of zircons had a broadly negative correlation with Ce/Ce*. Trace element geochemistry of zircons from mineralized quartz veins and plutonic rocks confirmed that the sources of ore-forming materials were from Precambrian host rocks. Our results significantly enhanced the usefulness of zircon in crustal studies of the North China craton and as an indicator mineral in mineral exploration of the Taihang region.

Laser probe 40Ar/39Ar dating for quartz from auriferous quartz veins in the Shihu gold deposit, western Hebei Province, North China

The Shihu gold deposit is situated in the central shear zone of the Meso-Cenozoic Fuping metamorphic core complex in the middle-northern part of the Taihang Mountains. This kind of gold deposits named after ‘Shihu type’ widely occurs in this region. Gold-bearing quartz veins are their most important industrial orebodies. Detailed laser 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of the mineralized quartz veins in the study area reveals details of its tectono-magmatic history. The 40Ar/39Ar ages for the quartz are between 134.4 Ma and 155.9 Ma with a mean age of 141±4 Ma on the isochron line and 139±7 Ma on the inverse isochron line, respectively, which is interpreted to be the best estimate of the crystalline age of the quartz veins. The gold mineralization was most likely related to an underplating event that took place in the northern part of the Taihang Mountain at ca. 140 Ma. The timing of gold mineralization in the area is similar to those observed in other major gold-producing provinces in the NCC. This episode is simultaneous with those in the eastern NCC, indicative of a widespread late Yanshanian metallogenic event that was a response either to the subduction of the Izanagi-Pacific plate beneath eastern China or to the removal of the Early Cretaceous lithosphere in the eastern NCC. The ore-forming material sources may be the Early Precambrian metamorphic basement, instead of intermediate-acid rock bodies and dykes.

Significance of quartz REE geochemistry, Shihu gold deposit, western Hebei Province, North China, using LA-ICP-MS

Rare earth element (REE) geochemistry on monomineral has been widely used in various fields of geosciences to reveal the origin of ore-forming materials and fluid. Quartz are ubiquitous mineral in the Shihu gold deposit that is situated in central shear zone of mesocenozoic Fuping metamorphic core complex in the middle-northern part of Taihang Mountains. Gold-bearing quartz veins are their most important industrial orebodies. Rare earth element abundances in quartz from the Shihu gold mine, as determined by laser ablation-indutively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analysis, are shown to be sensitive to identify barren quartz and mineralized quartz. Amounts of REE concentrations in barren quartz and mineralized quartz are 97 × 10−9 and 85 × 10−9, respectively. The average (La/Yb)N and (La/Sm)N ratios for the barren quartz are 0.25 and 0.13, and the ratios for mineralized quartz are 0.28 and 0.19, respectively. There is a pronounced positive correlation between (La/Yb)N and (La/Sm)N ratios. There is no obvious correlation between REE characteristics and sampling sites. The mineralized quartz show the most pronounced negative Ce anomalies, whereas weak negative Ce anomalies are typical of barren quartz vein. A negative Eu anomaly becomes more significant in mineralized quartz than barren quartz. δCe have a broadly positive correlation with δEu. Y/Ho ratio of barren quartz and mineralized quartz are ranging from 2.14–28.75, and from 1.28–9.92, respectively. The REE characteristics of quartz indicate that the ore-forming fluids of the gold deposit were derived from the deep fluid and its formation was dually controlled by Precambrian metamorphic basement and Mesozoic granitoids. The results significantly enhance the usefulness of quartz in tracing the sources of ore-forming fluid to discuss the genesis of the gold deposit, and as an indicator mineral in mineral exploration in Taihang mountain region.

Thermoluminescence of quartz from Shihu gold deposit, western Hebei province, China: some implications for gold exploration

AbstractThermoluminescence (TL) of monomineralic separates have been widely used in various geosciences fields in order to trace the thermal history and aid in prospecting for gold deposits. Quartz is a ubiquitous mineral in the Shihu gold deposit, which is situated in the northern part of the Taihang orogenic belt in the North China craton (NCC). The deposit is hosted by ductile-brittle faults within an Archean metamorphic core complex of the Fuping Group. This deposit is characterized by gold-bearing quartz-polymetallic sulfides and quartz veins. New TL results have been obtained for quartz, in which four type-TL glow curves were identified. The gold-bearing quartz present type III glow curves that consist of two peak glow curves at the middle and high peak temperatures with the similar TL intensity. In addition, the cross-sections of peak temperatures and TL intensity highlight the valuable area where the Au-bearing quartz present weak TL intensity and low-middle peak temperatures. Our results significantly enhance the usefulness of quartz in metallogenic studies of the North China craton and as an indicator mineral in mineral exploration of the Taihang Mountain region.

Analysis of the ore-controlling structure of the Shihu gold deposit, Hebei Province and deep-seated ore-prospecting prediction

Under the guidance of the theory of mantle-branch structure-associated metallogenesis and on the basis of the geological characteristics, analysis of the ore-forming and ore-controlling structures, the geochemical characteristics of metallogenesis, the source of ore-forming materials, changes in the physical and chemical conditions of metallogenesis, changes in the vertical width of ore veins, and changes in gold grade of the Shihu gold deposit, the mechanism of its metallogenesis was discussed and the rules of vertical variation of ore veins were summarized in this study. It is pointed out that the orebodies under exploitation at present time should be in the middle and upper portions of gold veins in the Shihu gold mining district. Particularly on the basis of the characteristics of mantle-branch structure-associated metallogenesis, it is indicated that metallogenesis is controlled mainly by such ore-forming conditions as temperature and pressure. Deep-seated ore-forming fluids are characterized mainly by injection and precipitation. So the vein bodies in the adjacent metallogenic structures are of obvious comparability, and there would be great prospects for ore search both at depth and in the periphery of the Shihu gold deposit. Therefore, ore prospecting should be strengthened both at depth and in the peripheries.