Shed Skin Research Articles

Rapid and Portable Presumptive Loop‐Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assays for the Detection of the Invasive Corn Snake (Pantherophis guttatus)

ABSTRACTThe exotic pet trade is a major pathway for the introduction, establishment, and spread of novel invasive alien species. Reptiles are common in the exotic pet trade and are prominent invasive alien vertebrate species that have dire impacts if allowed to establish. The North American corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) is particularly common in the international pet trade and has been identified as a vertebrate pest priority species in Australia due to widespread climate suitability and prevalence in pre‐ and post‐border seizure records. Consequently, rapid, and presumptive post‐border biosecurity detection is essential to prevent its establishment and spread. Loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is an emerging biosecurity tool that has shown promise for rapid detection of several high‐risk species. We developed two LAMP assays for the detection of P. guttatus, validated against: synthetic DNA; DNA extracted from snap‐frozen tissue, and shed skins; and then compared their performance for the detection of trace DNA collected from swabs of glass tanks post reptile presence. Our results include laboratory optimization and assessment of two mobile devices for in‐field integration (Franklin Real‐Time PCR Thermocycler, Biomeme, USA, and Genie III, Optigene, UK). The results indicate that LAMP is a viable biosecurity tool, with DNA detection possible for a range of sample types in a total of c.30 min, when including a rapid extraction step (8 min). Herein, we provide tools for rapid, presumptive detection of the North American corn snake from trace DNA samples in Australian biosecurity and wildlife compliance settings.

TROPHIC SPECTRUM AND FORAGING MODE OF LISSOTRITON VULGARIS IN A TEMPORARY POND OF THE CITY OF RIVNE, UKRAINE

The article summarizes the state of research on the trophic spectrum and foraging mode of the common newt in Europe in general and in Ukraine in particular. It is concluded that the level and diversity of such studies abroad is high compared to Ukraine. The relevance of such studies in temporary ponds is determined. The article analyzes the trophic spectrum and feeding mode of the common newt in temporary pond in Rivne. The stomach contents samples of 46 individuals of L. vulgaris were obtained, in which 2309 trophic objects were found. Food of animal origin prevails in the trophic spectrum of L. vulgaris and makes up 97%. Food objects of plant origin make up only 1% and mineral partic les – 2%. It was found that the most abundant food items are the larvae of the lake flies (Chironomidae) – 53% and crustaceans (Cladocera: Daphniidae; Chydoridae; Copepoda: Cyclopidae; Ostracoda) – 46%. The diet of L. vulgaris is significantly dominated by objects originating from the aquatic environment – 98.2% of the total number. Individuals of this species will capture prey of quite different sizes. The smallest food objects of the studied newts are planktonic crustaceans Chydoridae: 0.3–0.5 mm, the largest are earthworms Lumbricidae: 150–200 mm. It was found that the food spectrum of the newt changes during the season and depends on the life cycles of prey. In spring, when the trophic resources of the temporary pond are limited, crustaceans, in particular daphnia (Daphnіidae) and shell crustaceans (Ostracoda), dominate in the diet of the newt. During this period, the consumption of shed skin fragments, plant fragments, grains of sand is higher and larvae of the lake flies (Chironomidae) are absent, but in the second decade of May they dominate (more than 70%) in the diet. It was found that L. vulgaris uses different foraging mode in different periods. The predominance of crustaceans (daphnia, cyclopes) in the diet at the beginning of the season indicates that newts use active foraging tactics. In late April-May, we observed a significant predominance of larvae of the lake flies, which indicates that L. vulgaris uses sit-and-wait foraging. It was found that the foraging behavior of the newt in temporary ponds in Rivne is labile and varies depending on environmental conditions and its trophic offer.

Plasma and Shed-Skin Corticosterone Levels in a Population of Louisiana Pine Snakes (Pituophis ruthveni)

Abstract Measurement of corticosterone in various tissues has been used to investigate the stress response in reptile and amphibian species for decades. The tissue source from which corticosterone is measured reflects different periods of time and chronicity of stress levels in the subject, and different tissue collection methods differ in degree of invasiveness. Studies of corticosterone in keratinized tissues of reptiles, such as shed skin, are limited in number compared to hair and feather glucocorticoid studies in avian and mammalian species, but warrant continued research as they may reflect more different periods of time and chronicity of corticosterone levels than plasma or other tissues, and can be obtained in a minimally invasive manner. In this study, we measured corticosterone concentrations in both plasma and shed skin of Louisiana pine snakes (Pituophis ruthveni) that were all previously diagnosed with subclinical Cryptosporidium serpentis infection. We also tracked stressors experienced by different individuals to identify potential relationships between periods of increased stress and corticosterone levels in plasma and shed skin. There were no significant correlations between individual plasma and shed skin corticosterone levels, or between corticosterone levels in either tissue type and stressors experienced. This is the first study where corticosterone levels were measured in plasma and shed skin of P. ruthveni, and is the first known evaluation of plasma and shed skin corticosterone levels in a snake population previously testing positive for Cryptosporidium serpentis.

Ophidiomycosis in Wild Dice Snakes (Natrix tessellata) in Germany

Abstract Ophidiomycosis (formerly snake fungal disease) is an emerging disease in snakes caused by the fungal pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo). The disease is characterized by skin lesions that can range from mild to severe with associated fatalities documented. Subclinical infections have also been described presenting a wide variability of the impact Oo has on the host. In wild snakes, infections have most often been documented in North America, but increasing numbers of reports are becoming available from other parts of the world, including Europe. While monitoring dice snake (Natrix tessellata) populations in 2018 at Schleuse Hollerich/Lahn, a nature reserve in Germany, three dice snakes were observed with cutaneous granulomas. One year later, snakes with granulomas were also observed, and two dice snakes were captured and examined. Fungal hyphae were found in skin biopsies of the lesions and Oo was detected by PCR in the shed skin from one of the snakes. After shedding, the snakes appeared clinically healthy and were released back to the location at which they had been found. This is the first report of histologically confirmed ophidiomycosis in dice snakes and the first confirmed report of ophidiomycosis in a wild snake in Germany.

Incidence of Dermatophagy by Common Indian Toad Duttaphrynus Melanostictus (Schneider, 1799)

The skin of amphibians serves as a vital immune barrier that is essential for survival. In amphibians, the shedding of skin, or dermatophagy, is a multifaceted process influenced by factors such as species, age, and environmental conditions. This article explores an interesting incident of dermatophagy observed in Duttaphrynus melanostictus, the Common Indian Toad, within the Nature Garden of Amboli, Maharashtra. The toad exhibited the unique behaviour o consuming its own shed skin, a phenomenon not widely documented in amphibians. While dermatophagy has been studied in various reptiles, its purpose remains unclear. This observation provides insights into the ecological and behavioural aspects of amphibians, raising questions about the active or incidental nature of dermatophagy and its potential ecological correlates. Further research is warranted to unravel the precise reasons behind this intriguing behaviour in amphibians.

Ontogeny of color development in two green-brown polymorphic grasshopper species.

Many insects, including several orthopterans, undergo dramatic changes in body coloration during ontogeny. This variation is particularly intriguing in gomphocerine grasshoppers, where the green and brown morphs appear to be genetically determined (Schielzeth & Dieker, 2020, BMC Evolutionary Biology, 20, 63; Winter etal., 2021, Heredity, 127, 66). A better understanding of how these color morphs develop during ontogeny can provide valuable insights into the evolution and ecology of such a widespread color polymorphism. Here, we focus on the color development of two green-brown polymorphic species, the club-legged grasshopper Gomphocerus sibiricus and the steppe grasshopper Chorthippus dorsatus. By following the color development of individuals from hatching to adulthood, we found that color morph differences begin to develop during the second nymphal stage, are clearly defined by the third nymphal stage, and remain stable throughout the life of an individual. Interestingly, we also observed that shed skins of late nymphal stages are identifiable by color morphs based on their yellowish coloration, rather than the green that marks green body parts. Furthermore, by assessing how these colors are perceived by different visual systems, we found that certain potential predators can chromatically discriminate between morphs, while others may not. These results suggest that the putative genes controlling color morph are active during the early stages of ontogeny, and that green color is likely composed of two components, one present in the cuticle and one not. In addition, the effectiveness of camouflage appears to vary depending on the specific predator involved.

Skin lipids alone enable conspecific tracking in an invasive reptile, the Argentine black and white tegu lizard (Salvator merianae).

Locating potential mates in non-native habitats is one of the most important challenges faced by invasive vertebrate species. The Argentine black and white tegu lizard (Salvator merianae) is a major invasive reptile species in the contiguous United States and is rapidly expanding its range across Florida and the Southeast, in part due to inadequate management strategies and tools. Because a wide array of reptiles, especially squamates (snakes and lizards), have been well-studied for their reliance on chemical cues to locate conspecifics, our project aimed to isolate chemical cues from tegus and assess the ability of adult males and females to use only these cues to make navigation decisions within a Y-maze. Previously, we found that both males and females can follow conspecific scent trails, but the nature of the specific cues used by the tegus was unknown. In this study, we extracted skin lipids from male and female shed skins acquired during the breeding season then tested the extracts for bioactivity at different dilutions prior to Y-maze trials. Both sexes showed positive reactions (e.g., tongue-flicking, nose taps, scratching) to 2:1 skin lipid:hexane dilutions. In the Y-maze, males (n = 7) and females (n = 7) were run in three types of trailing scenarios with these skin lipid extracts: Male-only (pooled lipid extracts from male shed skins), Female-only (extracts from female shed skins), and Male vs. female. Regardless of the tegu lipid type present, tegus preferred to follow the conspecific lipid trail when paired with a neutral control (peanut oil; 2:1 dilution). They also preferred opposite-sex skin lipid trails when paired with same-sex skin lipid trails. We analyzed our results further by comparing them to those of Richard, Bukovich, et al. (2020). We found a synchronization effect of the skin lipids: sex differences in behavior detectable in the scent trail trials were absent when only conspecific skin lipids were present in the environment. Our results indicate that skin lipids alone are sufficient to facilitate mate tracking in S. merianae, these chemical cues induce reliable behavior, and extracted skin lipids have potential for modifying movement patterns of an invasive reptile in their non-native range. If leveraged in concert with current tegu management strategies (i.e., trapping), extracted skin lipids have the potential to bolster management efficacy but field trials are a requisite next step.

Snake shed skin consumed by Kinosternon vogti: a case of interspecific keratophagy

Some reptile species can consume their own shed skin or that of conspecifics; despite its prevalence, the benefits of eating shed skin remain poorly understood. Here, we report a field observation in which a Vallarta Mud Turtle (Kinosternon vogti) consumed a snake shed skin of Masticophis lineatus (Bocourt, 1890) in Bahía de Banderas, Nayarit, Mexico. This type of record could allow us to understand the keratophagous behaviour between and within reptile species.

An Enhanced Method for the Use of Reptile Skin Sheds as a High-Quality DNA Source for Genome Sequencing.

With the emergence of high-throughput sequencing technology, a number of non-avian reptile species have been sequenced at the genome scale, shedding light on various scientific inquiries related to reptile ecology and evolution. However, the routine requirement of tissue or blood samples for genome sequencing often poses challenges in many elusive reptiles, hence limiting the application of high-throughput sequencing technologies to reptile studies. An alternative reptilian DNA resource suitable for genome sequencing is in urgent need. Here, we used the corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) as a reptile model species to demonstrate that the shed skin is a high-quality DNA source for genome sequencing. Skin sheds provide a noninvasive type of sample that can be easily collected without restraining or harming the animal. Our findings suggest that shed skin from corn snakes yields DNA of sufficient quantity and quality that are comparable to tissue DNA extracts. Genome sequencing data analysis revealed that shed skin DNA is subject to bacteria contamination at variable levels, which is a major issue related to shed skin DNA and may be addressed by a modified DNA extraction method through introduction of a 30 min pre-digestion step. This study provides an enhanced method for the use of reptile shed skins as a high-quality DNA source for whole genome sequencing. Utilizing shed skin DNA enables researchers to overcome the limitations generally associated with obtaining traditional tissue or blood samples and promises to facilitate the application of genome sequencing in reptilian research.

Chemical map of skin secretions in old-world snakes

Skin secretions of snakes are complex mixtures consisting mainly of various non-polar, fat-soluble compounds with different purposes, incl. water permeability, social communication, and intra- and interspecific recognition. Comprehensive understanding of snake skin secretion composition is important for studying some of their key physiological or behavioural processes. In the current study, we describe skin secretion composition of 13 Old-World snake species using samples from shed skins, as well as alive or dead individuals. All samples were from adult snakes and were extracted by means of short immersion (for live individuals) or soaking for 24 h in n-hexane (for shed skins and dead individuals). We used a standard coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the analysis of the samples and detected 88 compounds in the skin secretions, with alkanes being the most common type. The identified compounds are likely to play a role in skin water permeability, host defence and chemical communication. While some compounds, such as alkanes, were common for most species, others, such as fatty acids and some ketones, displayed greater variability. We determined that the two sample extraction methods often produced different results for the same species, so any comparisons should me made with caution. The established differences between samples from live individuals and shed skins can lead to important conclusions regarding either methodologies used, as well as the physiology of the analyzed species. We discuss interspecific qualitative variations in skin secretions and compare our results with the available published data, providing a thorough literature review on skin secretions regarding 10 different genera.

Shed skin as a source of DNA for genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) in reptiles

Over a fifth of reptile species are classified as ‘Threatened’ and conservation efforts, especially those aimed at recovery of isolated or fragmented populations, will require genetic and genomic data and resources. Shed skins of snakes and other reptiles contain DNA; are a safe and ethical way of non-invasively sampling large numbers of individuals; and provide a simple mechanism by which to involve the public in scientific research. Here we test whether the DNA in dried shed skin is suitable for reduced representation sequencing approaches, specifically genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). Shed skin-derived libraries resulted in fewer sequenced reads than those from snap-frozen muscle samples, and contained slightly fewer variants (70,685 SNPs versus 97,724), but this issue can easily be rectified with deeper sequencing of shed skin-derived libraries. Skin-derived libraries also have a very slight (but significantly different) profile of transitions and transversions, most likely as a result of DNA damage, but the impact of this is minimal given the large number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) involved. SNP density tends to scale with chromosome length, and microchromosomes have a significantly higher SNP density than macrochromosomes, most likely because of their higher GC content. Overall, shed skin provides DNA of sufficient quality and quantity for the identification of large number of SNPs, but requires greater sequencing depth, and consideration of the GC richness of microchromosomes when selecting restriction enzymes.

Telescoping prey selection in invasive Burmese pythons spells trouble for endangered rodents

The allometric scaling of predators and their prey is well established within snakes (i.e., gape-width limits maximum prey sizes). However, while some species exhibit ontogenetic shifts to larger prey as they grow, others exhibit telescoping prey selection and continue to consume small prey in addition to larger prey. The Burmese python (Python bivittatus) is a large dietary generalist constrictor native to Southeast Asia that is established in South Florida (USA). As part of survey efforts at the southern invasion front in the Florida Keys, we used camera traps to document predation on endangered Key Largo cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus allapaticola) by an adult female Burmese python. These images represent the first photo documentation of predation attempts upon a federally endangered species in the python's invasive range, but we note three additional instances of Key Largo cotton mice in the gut contents of euthanized pythons from Key Largo. These observations suggest Burmese pythons exhibit telescoping prey selection behavior where even small rodents (<30 g) are viable prey for adult snakes. However, based on the number of documented strikes with failed predation events and low frequency of occurrence in gut contents, we suspect mice may be less common prey items for adult (i.e., >185 cm SVL) pythons relative to cotton mouse abundance in the environment. However, we also documented endangered Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli) and Key Largo cotton mice collecting and consuming the shed skins of pythons, which suggests the two rodent species remain naïve to the threat of these invasive predators. Further understanding of the impact of Burmese pythons on native prey communities can help inform efforts to minimize biodiversity loss along their invasion fronts.

A frameshift variant in the melanophilin gene is associated with loss of pigment from shed skin in ball pythons ( Python regius ).

Melanophilin is a myosin adaptor required for transporting the pigment melanin within cells. Loss of melanophilin in fish, birds, and mammals causes pigmentation defects, but little is known about the role of melanophilin in non-avian reptiles. Here we show that a frameshift in the melanophilin gene in ball python ( P. regius ) is associated with loss of pigment from shed skin. This variant is predicted to remove the myosin-binding domain of melanophilin and thereby impair transport of melanin-containing organelles. Our study represents the first description of a melanophilin variant in a non-avian reptile and confirms the role of melanophilin across vertebrates.

Developing Loop Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) assays for rapid, presumptive DNA detection of an invasive reptile (Boa constrictor)

Context Wildlife trade is a prominent pathway for invasive species introductions into novel environments. Deliberate or accidental release of exotic pets can result in the establishment of alien populations, with damaging impacts for native species and environmental assets. This process is well documented for reptiles globally and is of considerable biosecurity concern in Australia. Boa constrictor is one species at high risk of establishment in Australia, and has insufficient biosecurity detection and post-border control capacity. Aims We aimed to develop rapid DNA-based presumptive testing capacity for detecting B. constrictor, with appropriate sensitivity and specificity to operate in a trace DNA biosecurity context. Methods Loop Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) is an emerging biosecurity tool that provides highly specific, sensitive, low-resource methods for detection of trace DNA in the absence of physical evidence. We developed colourimetric and fluorescent LAMP assays targeting the mitochondrial DNA control region of B. constrictor. We tested and validated these assays against synthetic DNA fragments, as well as DNA extracted from: (1) vouchered museum B. constrictor tissue; (2) shed B. constrictor skin samples; (3) a range of non-target species to test specificity; and (4) trace DNA recovered from glass tanks post B. constrictor presence. Key results We successfully detected synthetic target DNA down to 1 fg and genomic B. constrictor DNA from tissue and shed skins down to &lt;10 pg in under 30 minutes with our fluorescence-based LAMP assay. Additionally, we were able to detect B. constrictor trace DNA following 24 h of presence utilising a traditional laboratory-based DNA extraction method (approximately 180 min) and a rapid lysis step (approximately 8 min). Conclusions Both colourimetric and fluorescent assays show promise for the specific detection of B. constrictor in biosecurity contexts, including post-border enforcement and compliance checks in the domestic illicit wildlife trade. Implications Our findings greatly strengthen the ongoing development of biosecurity tools for trace DNA detection of commonly traded and trafficked species (i.e. reptiles) in wildlife enforcement contexts, advancing both preparedness and surveillance.

A community-science approach identifies genetic variants associated with three color morphs in ball pythons (Python regius).

Color morphs in ball pythons (Python regius) provide a unique and largely untapped resource for understanding the genetics of coloration in reptiles. Here we use a community-science approach to investigate the genetics of three color morphs affecting production of the pigment melanin. These morphs-Albino, Lavender Albino, and Ultramel-show a loss of melanin in the skin and eyes, ranging from severe (Albino) to moderate (Lavender Albino) to mild (Ultramel). To identify genetic variants causing each morph, we recruited shed skins of pet ball pythons via social media, extracted DNA from the skins, and searched for putative loss-of-function variants in homologs of genes controlling melanin production in other vertebrates. We report that the Albino morph is associated with missense and non-coding variants in the gene TYR. The Lavender Albino morph is associated with a deletion in the gene OCA2. The Ultramel morph is associated with a missense variant and a putative deletion in the gene TYRP1. Our study is one of the first to identify genetic variants associated with color morphs in ball pythons and shows that pet samples recruited from the community can provide a resource for genetic studies in this species.

Molecular Identification of Captive Snakes from their Shed Skin Using Cyt b &amp; 12s rRNA Markers

Aims: To successfully utilize non-invasive shed skin samples for species identification of captive snake species of Tamil Nadu and create genetic repository.&#x0D; Study Design: The experiment was designed to apply the ammonium acetate method of DNA extraction from shed skin. Two mitochondrial markers were used to ascertain identification of species.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Advanced Institute for Wildlife Conservation (AIWC), Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Vandalur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The samples were collected between May and October 2019 from Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Vandalur, Guindy National Park, Chennai, and Amirthi Zoological Park, Vellore, Tamil Nadu.&#x0D; Methodology: We collected fresh shed skin from 8 different snake species from captivities of zoos and dried between 48 to 72 hours to remove moisture. Independent DNA isolations were performed for each sample. The DNA isolated samples were quantified using Nanodrop Spectrophotometer for concentration. Independent PCR amplification of mitochondrial regions of cytochrome b and 12S rRNA were performed and agarose gel electrophoresis was carried out. PCR products were subjected to sanger sequencing using genetic analyzer.&#x0D; Results: The DNA concentration from all 8 different snake species ranged between 250 to 1600 ng/µL and average quality ratios A260/280 of 1.85 and A260/230 of 2.10. Both the mitochondrial gene regions cytochrome b and 12S rRNA showed specificity in species amplification with NCBI BLAST result ranging from 99-100%. Phylogenetic trees using maximum-likelihood method classified closely related species under the same clade, with a bootstrap support of 60-100%. Genetic distances of snake species ranged from 0.148-0.457 in cytochrome b region and 0.148-0.457 in 12S region.&#x0D; Conclusion: Shed skin is often overlooked from utilization for species identification. In this study, DNA from shed skin of 8 captive snakes is extracted and amplified using Cyt b and 12s mitochondrial markers. Individual phylogenetic trees are constructed for each marker to find relatedness of different snake species with one another. This work is an initiation of genetic repository creation of captive snake species of Tamil Nadu and could be effectively employed in conservation and population genetic studies of snakes.

Correction: Identifcation of the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) through genetic analysis of shed skin

Correction: Identifcation of the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) through genetic analysis of shed skin

Identification of the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) through genetic analysis of shed skin

Identification of the Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) through genetic analysis of shed skin

SHORT-TERM EFFECT OF Naja naja SHED SKIN EXTRACT ON HISTOPATHOLOGY OF TESTIS, EPIDIDYMIS AND VAS DEFERENS OF SWISS ALBINO MICE

Ancient literature reveals that snake shed skin had been frequently used to treat several diseases like glaucoma, hernia, psoriasis, hemorrhoids, etc. Previously, it was reported that Naja naja shed skin extract causes temporary cessation of the estrous cycle and altered female reproductive hormones in rodents, and the probable bioactive molecule behind such alterations was also identified. Based on this information, the present study was designed to establish the effect of Naja naja shed skin extract on the male reproductive system of Swiss albino mice. The extract was prepared with physiological saline and was injected intraperitoneally in the male mice for 7 consecutive days @ 10 mg kg-1 body weight. The short-term histopathological studies were performed by Haematoxylin and Eosin staining and the sperm morphology was analyzed by using bright-field microscopy. The snake skin extract markedly changed the gross histological architecture of the seminiferous tubules including disorganization of germinal epithelial cells, accumulation of exfoliated cells in the lumen, tailless sperm in the epididymis, disorganized basal cells in vas deferens as well as marked alteration of sperm morphology. The present work with snake shed skin strongly indicates that it is not simply a biological waste, but it might be a treasure house of many bioactive compounds.

Using Environmental Sampling to Enable Zoonotic Pandemic Preparedness

The current pandemic caused by the SARS CoV-2, tracing back its origin possibly to a coronavirus associated with bats, has ignited renewed interest in understanding zoonotic spillovers across the globe. While research is more directed towards solving the problem at hand by finding therapeutic strategies and novel vaccine techniques, it is important to address the environmental drivers of pathogen spillover and the complex biotic and abiotic drivers of zoonoses. The availability of cutting-edge genomic technologies has contributed enormously to preempt viral emergence from wildlife. However, there is still a dearth of studies from species-rich South Asian countries, especially from India. In this review, we outline the importance of studying disease dynamics through environmental sampling from wildlife in India and how ecological parameters of both the virus and the host community may play a role in mediating cross-species spillovers. Non-invasive sampling using feces, urine, shed hair, saliva, shed skin, and feathers has been instrumental in providing genetic information for both the host and their associated pathogens. Here, we discuss the advances made in environmental sampling protocols and strategies to generate genetic data from such samples towards the surveillance and characterization of potentially zoonotic pathogens. We primarily focus on bat-borne or small mammal-borne zoonoses and propose a conceptual framework for non-invasive strategies to tackle the threat of emerging zoonotic infections.