Vertebral Body Shape Research Articles

Analyzing lumbar vertebral shape and alignment in female patients with degenerative spondylolisthesis: Comparisons with spinal stenosis and risk factor exploration.

This study aimed to examine the vertebral body shape characteristics and spondylopelvic alignment in L4 degenerative spondylolisthesis (DS) as well as the risk factors for the development of DS. This cross-sectional study compared vertebral morphology and sagittal spinopelvic alignment in female patients with lumbar DS and lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS). The degree of lumbar lordosis (LL), pelvic incidence (PI), cross-sectional area (CSA), and vertebral body height ratio (ha/hp) of the lumbar spine were compared using full-length spine radiographs and computed tomography in 60 females with DS and in 60 women with LSS. No significant differences in age or body mass index were observed between the two groups; however, the DS and LSS groups significantly differed in PI (mean, 58.9±10.8 vs. 47.2±11.6, P < 0.001), L4 CSA (mean, 1,166.2 m2 vs. 1,242.0 m2, P = 0.002) and ha/hp (mean, 1.134 vs. 1.007, P < 0.001). The L4 ha/hp was significantly higher in the DS group than in the LSS group. Additionally, LL values were negatively correlated with vertebral L5 CSA in the DS group (r = -0.28, P < 0.05). The LSS and DS groups demonstrated positive correlations between LL and L2, L3, and L4 ha/hp (r = 0.331, 0.267, and 0.317; P < 0.01, < 0.05, and < 0.05, respectively) and between LL and L4 and L5 ha/hp (r = 0.333, 0.331; P < 0.01, respectively). Multivariate regression analyses revealed that PI and ha/hp ratio may be independent predictors of DS development. The DS group had significantly larger LL, PI, and L4 ha/hp and smaller L4 CSA than the LSS group. The lumbar vertebral body shape and sagittal spinopelvic alignment in females might be independent predictors of DS development.

Three-dimensional vertebral shape changes confirm growth modulation after anterior vertebral body tethering for idiopathic scoliosis.

To evaluate three-dimensional (3D) vertebra and disk shape changes over 2years following anterior vertebral body tether (AVBT) placement in patients with idiopathic scoliosis (IS). Patients with right thoracic IS treated with AVBT were retrospectively evaluated. 3D reconstructions were created from biplanar radiographs. Vertebral body and disk height (anterior, posterior, left and right) and shape (wedging angle) were recorded over the three apical segments in the local vertebral reference planes. Changes in height and wedging were measured through 2years postoperatively. Change in patient height was correlated with changes in the spine dimensions. Forty-nine patients (Risser 0-3, Sanders 2-4) were included. The mean age was 12.2 ± 1.4years (range 8-14). The mean coronal curve was 51 ± 10° preoperatively, 31 ± 9° at first postoperative time point and 27 ± 11° at 2-year follow-up (p < 0.001). The mean patient height increased 8cm by 2years (p < 0.001). The left side of the spine (vertebra + disc) grew in height by 2.2mm/level versus 0.7mm/level on the right side (p < 0.001). This differential growth was composed of 0.5mm/vertebral level and 1.0mm/disk level. Evaluation of the change in disk heights showed significantly decreased height anteriorly (- 0.4mm), posteriorly (- 0.3mm) and on the right (- 0.5mm) from FE to 2years. Coronal wedging reduced 2.3°/level with 1.1°/vertebral level change and 1.2°/disk level. There was no differential growth in the sagittal plane (anterior/posterior height). Patient height change moderately correlated with 3D measures of vertebra + disk shape changes. Three-dimensional analysis confirms AVBT in skeletally immature patients results in asymmetric growth of the apical spine segments. The left (untethered) side length increased more than 3 × than the right (tethered) side length with differential effects observed within the vertebral bodies and disks, each correlating with overall patient height change.

Skeletal anomalies in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) larvae reared in different densities and water volumes

AbstractThis study describes the effects on the skeletal phenotype of two pivotal factors, density and water volume, don the hatchery (larval) phase of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) larvae previoulsy described for two model species (Danio rerio and Oryzias latipes) and sub‐adult (pre‐ongrowing) gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). The experimental trial was conducted using single conditions in a pilot study, starting with a total of 615,385 eggs from the same batch. Three densities (LD low density: 25 larvae/L; MD medium density: 125 larvae/L; and HD high density: 250 larvae/L) and two water volumes (500 and 1000 L) were tested from spawning up to 60 days post‐hatching (dph) (average standard length: 1.79 cm; average dry weight: 27.11 mg). On the final samples, morphometric, anatomical, and histological data were collected for data pertinent to meristic counts and skeletal anomalies. The results (analyzed by means of multivariate analyses) indicated that the LD‐reared larvae were significantly longer and heavier than HD‐reared fish. Furthermore, LD‐reared gilthead seabream exhibited a significant reduction in the frequency of individuals with anomalies of jaws, vertebral body shape, and vertebral arches than the MD and HD conditions, which is in agreement with previous experiments carried out on model species and gilthead seabream sub‐adults.

Effect of morphological changes in the sagittal plane of vertebrae and discs on degenerative kyphodeformity

To explore the effects of morphological changes such as vertebral wedge deformation and disc degeneration (collapse) on adult thoracolumbar/lumbar degenerative kyphosis(TL/LDK) deformity. A retrospective analysis of 32 patients with spinal TL/LDK deformity admitted from August 2015 to December 2020, including 8 males and 24 females, aged 48 to 75(60.3±12.4) years old. On the long-cassette standing upright lateral radiographs, the coronal Cobb angle, sagittal thoracic lumbar/lumbar kyphosis angle(KA) of spine were measured, and the height and wedge parameters of apex vertebral(AV) and two vertebrae(AV-1, AV-2, AV+1, AV+2) above and below AV and the intervertebrae and the intervertebral disc(AV-1D, AV-2D, AV+1D, AV+2D) were evaluated, involving anterior vertebral body height(AVH), posterior vertebral body height(PVH), vertebral wedge angle(VWA), ratio of vertebral wedging(RVW), anterior disc height(ADH), posterior disc height(PDH), disc wedge angle(DWA), ratio of disc wedging(RDW), and DWA/KA. The average angle of kyphosis was (44.2±19.1)°. A significant decrease in anterior height of vertebral was observed compared to the posterior height of vertebral(P<0.005). There was no significant difference in anterior and posterior height of discs. The vertebral wedging ratio/contribution ratio:AV-2(14.98±10.95)%/(14.21±8.08)%, AV-1(21.08±12.39)%/(18.09±7.38)%, AV(26.94±11.94)%/(25.52±8.64)%, AV+1(24.19±8.42)%/(20.82±8.69)%, AV+2(20.56±7.80)%/(15.60±9.71)%, total contribution(94.23±22.25)%, the disc wedging ratio/contribution ratio:AV-2D(2.88±2.57)%/(5.27±4.11)%, AV-1D(1.98±1.41)%/(2.29±2.16)%, AV+1D(-5.54±3.75)%/(-0.57±0.46)%, AV+2D(-8.27±4.62)%/(-1.22±1.11)%, total contribution (5.77±4.79)%. And the contribution rate of AV was significantly higher than that of adjacent vertebral(P<0.05). The vertebral body and intervertebral disc shape both have influence on thoracolumbar kyphosis. However, the contribution of vertebral morphometry to the angle of TL/LDK deformity is relatively more important than the disc. The contribution of the wedge change of the AV to the TL/LDK deformity is particularly significant.

Prediction of the 3D shape of the L1 vertebral body from adjacent vertebrae.

The aim of treatments of vertebral fractures is the anatomical reduction to restore the physiological biomechanics of the spine and the stabilization of the fracture to allow bone healing. However, the three-dimensional shape of the fractured vertebral body before the fracture is unknown in the clinical setting. Information about the pre-fracture vertebral body shape could help surgeons to select the optimal treatment. The goal of this study was to develop and validate a method based on Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) to predict the shape of the vertebral body of L1 from the shapes of T12 and L2. The geometry of the vertebral bodies of T12, L1 and L2 vertebrae of 40 patients were extracted from CT scans available from the VerSe2020 open-access dataset. Surface triangular meshes of each vertebra were morphed onto a template mesh. The set of vectors with the node coordinates of the morphed T12, L1 and L2 were compressed with SVD and used to build a system of linear equations. This system was used to solve a minimization problem and to reconstruct the shape of L1. A leave-one-out cross-validation was performed. Moreover, the approach was tested against an independent dataset with large osteophytes. The results of the study show a good prediction of the shape of the vertebral body of L1 from the shapes of the two adjacent vertebrae (mean error equal to 0.51±0.11mm on average, Hausdorff distance equal to 2.11±0.56mm on average), compared to current CT resolution typically used in the operating room. The error was slightly higher for patients presenting large osteophytes or severe bone degeneration (mean error equal to 0.65±0.10mm, Hausdorff distance equal to 3.54±1.03mm). The accuracy of the prediction was significantly better than approximating the shape of the vertebral body of L1 by the shape of T12 or L2. This approach could be used in the future to improve the pre-planning of spine surgeries to treat vertebral fractures.

Automated shape-independent assessment of the spatial distribution of proton density fat fraction in vertebral bone marrow

This work proposes a method for automatic standardized assessment of bone marrow volume and spatial distribution of the proton density fat fraction (PDFF) in vertebral bodies. Intra- and interindividual variability in size and shape of vertebral bodies is a challenge for comparable interindividual evaluation and monitoring of changes in the composition and distribution of bone marrow due to aging and/or intervention. Based on deep learning image segmentation, bone marrow PDFF of single vertebral bodies is mapped to a cylindrical template and corrected for the inclination with respect to the horizontal plane. The proposed technique was applied and tested in a cohort of 60 healthy (30 males, 30 females) individuals. Obtained bone marrow volumes and mean PDFF values are comparable to former manual and (semi-)automatic approaches. Moreover, the proposed method allows shape-independent characterization of the spatial PDFF distribution inside vertebral bodies.

Breed-specific values for vertebral heart score (VHS), vertebral left atrial size (VLAS), and radiographic left atrial dimension (RLAD) in pugs without cardiac disease, and their relationship to Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS).

This prospective study aims to establish reference ranges for vertebral heart score (VHS), vertebral left atrial size (VLAS), and radiographic left atrial dimension (RLAD) in pugs. The impact of clinical severity of Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Syndrome (BOAS), gender, body condition score, and body weight on VHS, VLAS, and RLAD were investigated. Intra- and interobserver correlation was determined. Correlation of radiographic scores to echocardiographic left atrial dimension was inspected. Additionally, for VLAS and RLAD, correlation to VHS was examined. Additionally, an assessment of thoracic and vertebral malformations was performed. Forty-seven privately owned pugs underwent physical examination, echocardiography, and thoracic radiography to determine cardiac health. Thirty-two pugs were eligible for establishing reference ranges for VHS in right lateral radiographs, which was 11.25 ± 0.62 (95% range, 10.1–12.8). Reference ranges for VHS in left lateral, and for VLAS and RLAD in right lateral radiograph were determined in 30 pugs. The VHS in left lateral radiograph was 11.01 ± 0.70 (95% range, 9.4–12.6), VLAS was 1.96 ± 0.38 (95% range, 1.1–2.8), and RLAD was 1.59 ± 0.34 (95% range, 0.7–2.4). Clinical severity of BOAS did not show any impact on radiographic measurements. For VLAS, a significant correlation to VHS was detected by all observers. No other variables had a consistent influence on the radiographic scores given by all observers. Interobserver agreement was almost perfect for VHS (0.89 on right lateral and 0.91 on left lateral image), moderate for VLAS (0.49), and fair for RLAD (0.22). More than one third of the entire study population (18 of 47 pugs) showed at least one thoracic cavity or spine abnormality, often leading to considerable changes in vertebral body shape and size.

Sex estimation using the first lumbar vertebra by geometric morphometric analysis of 3D computed tomography in the Malaysian population.

• The first lumbar (L1) vertebra can be alternatively used for sex estimation. • Using CT-scan images by GM technique, L1 vertebra was found to be sexually dimorphic. • Coronal CT scan of the L1 vertebra played a crucial role in estimating sex. • Vertebral body height was shown to be greater in females than males. • Males displayed larger centroid size than females. Sex estimation is vital in developing an accurate biological profile of human remains. The L1 vertebra have been reported to be sexually dimorphic by traditional metric method. Geometric morphometric (GM) is an advanced morphological analysis, which covers a mechanism to quantify size and shape characteristics. This study analyzed the first lumbar vertebra (L1) from CT scan images by geometric morphometric for sex estimation in the Malaysian population. Samples were taken from 3D CT images of 226 adults, aged between 20 and 65 years old. A total of 27 landmarks were applied using Stratovan checkpoint software, and GM analysis was conducted by MorphoJ software. There was a significant difference between sexes in centroid sizes of the L1 vertebra by independent t-test (p < 0.05). By Procrustes ANOVA, it showed significant difference in both shape and centroid size between sexes (p < 0.001). The principal component analysis (PCA) revealed vertebral body shape variation between different sexes. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) with cross-validation demonstrated 77.35% classification of sex, with accuracy rates of 74.7% for females and 80.0% for males. The L1 vertebral body is sexually dimorphic by 3D geometric morphometric among Malaysians. The sexual dimorphism does not relate to size dimorphism although males show larger centroid size than females.

Children with Spinal Muscular Atrophy Have Reduced Vertebral Body Height and Depth and Pedicle Size in Comparison to Age-Matched Healthy Controls

Most children with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) develop spinal deformity, which may require surgical intervention. In addition to poor bone stock, vertebral body shape may hinder the placement of spinal implants resulting in complications and poor outcome. The aim of this study was to analyze whether vertebral body morphology of children and adolescents with SMA is altered in comparison to healthy age-matched controls. In this prospective cohort study, 17 children with SMA (mean age 8.7 ±1.0 years) and 13 adolescents with SMA (mean age 13.6 ±1.4 years), all with some degree of neuromuscular scoliosis, were analyzed by standardized radiographic measurements to evaluate vertebral body height and depth. Results were compared with age-matched healthy controls (n= 10 children; mean age 9.1 ± 1.6 years; n= 20 adolescents, mean age 13.1 ± 0.5 years). Computed tomography scans of 27 adolescents with SMA (13.5 ±1.2 years) and 25 healthy age-matched controls (13.8 ±2.0 years) were analyzed to define pedicle diameters. All children and adolescents with SMA had decreased vertebral height and depth in comparison to age-matched healthy controls. In adolescents, reduced depth was more pronounced than height in the thoracic spine. Pedicle size was significantly reduced in the lower thoracic and lumbar area. Reduced vertebral body height and depth and pedicle size in children and adolescents with SMA may influence surgical treatment of spinal deformity. Surgeons should be aware of anatomical differences and choose implant devices accordingly.

Blue Whale Body Condition Assessed Over a 14-Year Period in the NE Pacific: Annual Variation and Connection to Measures of Ocean Productivity

Large marine mammals can serve as an indicator of the overall state of the environment due to their apex position in marine food webs and their functions as sentinels of change. Reductions in prey, driven by changes in environmental conditions can manifest in reduced fat stores that are visible on whales. We developed a non-invasive technique using photographs of blue whales taken on the US west coast from 2005-2018 (n=3,660) and scored body condition based on visible undulations from the vertebral processes and body shape. We analyzed patterns in the body condition of whales across years and their relation to oceanographic conditions. Females with calves had significantly poorer body conditions and calves had significantly better body conditions compared to other adult whales (Chi-Square, x2 = 170.36, df=6, p&amp;lt;2.2e-16). Year was a significant factor in body condition (Chi-Square, x2 = 417.73, df=39, p&amp;lt;0.001). The highest proportion of whales in poor body condition was observed for 2015 (one of the only two years along with 2017 where &amp;gt;50% had poor body condition) coincides with the marine heat wave that affected the NE Pacific 2014-2016. A cumulative mixed model examining the relationship between body condition and environmental variables revealed that negative Pacific Decadal Oscillation and longer upwelling seasons correlated with better blue whale body condition, likely to be due to higher primary productivity and prey availability. This study indicates that with an adequate scoring method, photographs collected during boat based surveys can be used to effectively evaluate whale health in response to a changing ocean.

Triploid Atlantic salmon × brown trout hybrids have similar seawater growth and welfare issues as triploid Atlantic salmon, but both were heavier at harvest than their diploid counterparts

Interspecific hybridisation may improve the farm performance of sterile triploid salmonids via heterosis (i.e. hybrid vigour). We assessed growth over the final 293 days in seawater, and harvest quality, in diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) × brown trout (Salmo trutta) hybrids compared to diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon. We measured vertebral deformities, cataracts, flesh colour, gut mass, and body shape at harvest. In triploids, hybridisation had no effect on harvest size, vertebral deformities, cataracts, or body shape, but did improve fillet colouration (Mean digital SalmoFan™ score [95% CI]: 24.6 [24.4–24.9] and 26.0 [25.7–26.2] for triploid salmon and triploid hybrids, respectively) and lower relative gut size (34% lower). Compared to diploid salmon, triploid salmon were significantly heavier at harvest, triploid hybrids tended to be heavier (Post-hoc, least square means, p = 0.08), whereas diploid hybrids were 83% lighter (Mean mass [g] at harvest [95% CI]: 2676 [2470–2898], 3395 [3134–3679], 462 [401–534], and 3086 [2832–3363] for diploid salmon, triploid salmon, diploid hybrids, and triploid hybrids, respectively). However, both triploid groups had a significantly higher incidence of fish with one or more deformed vertebra (Mean % [95% CI]: 23 [14–35], 60 [47–71], 38 [20–60], and 44 [31–57] % in diploid salmon, triploid salmon, diploid hybrids, and triploid hybrids, respectively), more severe cataracts (Mean cataract score [95% CI]: 3.0 [2.7–3.3], 3.5 [3.2–3.8], 2.2 [1.7–2.6], 3.6 [3.3–4.0] for diploid salmon, triploid salmon, diploid hybrids, and triploid hybrids, respectively), and a smaller relative gut size (21% smaller) compared to diploid counterparts. In conclusion, triploid hybrids have no growth advantage over triploid salmon and suffer from similar welfare issues while only benefiting from increased fillet colour.

Multifactor Analysis of Costal Pain in Osteoporotic Fracture of Thoracic Vertebra

The costal pain is common in thoracic osteoporotic fracture patients. It is unclear why vertebral fracture patients without any specific nerve impingement on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) present with costal pain. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential causes of costal pain in patients with osteoporotic fracture of thoracic vertebra. A retrospective study. Shandong province, China. In this retrospective study, 100 patients with thoracic osteoporotic fractures were collected and assigned into 2 groups on the basis of pain patterns noted during medical history and physical examination. Group A was comprised of 50 patients with costal pain. Group B was comprised of 50 patients without costal pain. The Visual Analog Scale and Oswestry Disability Index scores were recorded to assess the pattern and severity of pain. The gender, age, presence or absence of trauma, time of fracture, fracture segments, and analgesic application were recorded. Computed tomography data including changes in fracture vertebral body shape (height, width, and length), intervertebral foramen shape (height and width), wedge shape of fractured vertebral body, and local kyphosis angle were recorded. The fracture edema signal was determined by MRI. Multivariate analysis was performed for all the above parameters. There was a statistically significant difference in the vertebral body width between the 2 groups. The number of patients enrolled is not large enough. We also have limitations in interpreting all pains resulting from osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures, because all pain mechanisms are not fully understood. Further work is needed to improve the accuracy of locating pain sources and distinguishing pain patterns which may result from other spinal structures. The incidence of costal pain is significantly and positively associated with the width of the fractured vertebra in patients with osteoporotic thoracic vertebrae fracture.

Equivalent values between anterior vertebral height, wedge ratio, and wedge angle in osteoporotic vertebral fractures.

Vertebral mobility (V-mobility) has been used to diagnose fresh osteoporotic vertebral fractures (OVFs), and determine or predict bone union by setting cutoff values for these purposes. V-mobility is defined as the difference in shape of vertebral bodies between lateral radiographs taken in weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing positions. The parameters for V-mobility have varied in previous reports among anterior vertebral height (Ha, mm), wedge ratio (WR, %), and wedge angle (WA, degrees). The present study aimed to clarify WR and WA equivalent to Ha of 1.0mm, and to compare the reported cutoff values for V-mobility presented as Ha, WR, or WA. Lateral radiographs of 446 normal vertebrae (grade 0) and 146 deformed vertebrae (grade 1-3) from T11 to L2 were obtained from 183 female patients aged > 60years. WR (%) values equivalent to Ha of 1.0mm were calculated by Ha (1.0mm)/Hp × 100 (Hp: posterior vertebral height). Corresponding WA values were calculated by trigonometric function using vertebral dimensions. The mean WR values equivalent to Ha of 1.0mm in the vertebrae from T11 to L2 were 3.2%, 3.2%, 3.5%, and 3.7% for grades 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively, and the corresponding WA values were 1.6°, 1.6°, 1.5°, and 1.4°. The equivalent values for V-mobility presented as Ha, WR, and WA were obtained. The mean WR and WA values equivalent to Ha of 1.0mm in grade 1-3 vertebrae were 3.5% and 1.5°, respectively.

Multilevel "fish-vertebra" sign in a patient with idiopathic osteoporosis.

“Fish‐vertebra” is an uncommon deformity of vertebral body shape, consisting of central depression of the superior and inferior surfaces of vertebral bodies. It is characteristic in idiopathic osteoporosis and can help in the differential diagnosis of other conditions, such as osteomalacia, hyperparathyroidism, sickle cell disease, Paget disease, and multiple myeloma.

Vertebral body changes after continuous spinal distraction in scoliotic children

PurposeGrowth-friendly spinal implants (GFSI) were established for scoliotic children as an interim solution until definite spinal fusion could be performed during puberty. While deformity control was clearly proven, the effects on vertebral shape and morphology are still unclear. Our prospective study assesses the effect of GFSI with continuous distraction on vertebral body shape and volume in SMA children in comparison with previously untreated age-matched SMA patients.MethodsCohort I (n = 19, age 13.2 years) were SMA patients without prior surgical scoliosis treatment. Cohort II (n = 24, age 12.4 years) were children, who had continuous spinal distraction with GFSI for 4.5 years. Radiographic measurements and computed tomography (CT) 3D volume rendering were performed before definite spinal fusion. For cohort II, additional radiographs were analyzed before the first surgical implantation of GFSI, after surgery and every year thereafter.ResultsOur analysis revealed decreased depth and volume in scoliotic patients with prior GFSI compared to scoliotic patients without prior implants. This difference was significant for the lower thoracic and entire lumbar spine. Vertebral body height and pedicle size were unchanged between the two cohorts.ConclusionCT data showed volume reduction in the vertebral body in scoliotic children after GFSI treatment. This effect was more severe in the lumbar and lower thoracic area. While vertebral height was identical in both groups, vertebral depth was reduced in the GFSI-treated group. Reduced vertebral depth and altered vertebral morphology should be considered before instrumenting the spine in previously treated scoliotic SMA children.Level of evidence IIIDiagnostic: individual cross-sectional studies with consistently applied reference standard and blinding.

Changes in peri-apical vertebral body and intervertebral disc shape in both the sagittal and coronal planes correlate with scoliosis severity: a 3D study of 397 patients.

To evaluate associations between vertebrae and disc shape asymmetry and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) curve severity. Analysis included normal screening referrals and patients with right, main thoracic AIS who underwent upright, biplanar radiographs with 3D reconstruction at a single institution from 2010 to 2015. Peri-apical anterior, posterior, right, and left vertebral body heights (aVBH, pVBH, rVBH, lVBH) and intervertebral disc heights (DH) were measured, and ratios of these measurements were calculated in sagittal and coronal planes. Correlations were performed between curve severity and height measurements. Sagittal and coronal plane components of these measurements were compared between normal controls with coronal curve measurements < 11° and patients with moderate (11°-49°) and severe curves (≥ 50°), with tolerance intervals established for the normal controls. The analysis included a total of 397 patients. Patients with AIS had coronal curve measurements ranging from 11° to 101°. Greater coronal curve severity strongly correlated with smaller pVBH relative to aVBH and moderately correlated with smaller pDH relative to aDH (r = - 0.643, r = - 0.305, respectively). aVBH was greater for larger curves; pVBH remained stable. Scoliosis severity strongly correlated with right relative to left VBH and DH ratios (r = 0.919, r = 0.865 respectively). In comparison of normal controls to severe curves, severe curves had significantly greater aVBH and aDH, while pVBH was not significantly different and pDH was significantly less. Nearly half (46.9%) of the severe curves were below the range of normal for PA vertebral height ratio. In right, main thoracic AIS, greater main thoracic curve severity is associated with greater sagittal and coronal plane asymmetry of both the vertebral bodies and the discs. Severity more strongly correlates with vertebral changes in symmetry than with disc changes, though both are present.

Exercise-induced lordosis in zebrafish Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822).

The anabolic effect of exercise on muscles and bones is well documented. In teleost fish, exercise has been shown to accelerate skeletogenesis, to increase bone volume, and to change the shape of vertebral bodies. Still, increased swimming has also been reported to induce malformations of the teleost vertebral column, particularly lordosis. This study examines whether zebrafish (Danio rerio) develops lordosis as a result of continuous physical exercise. Zebrafish were subjected, for 1 week, to an increased swimming exercise of 5.0, 6.5 or 8.0 total body lengths (TL) per second. Control and exercise group zebrafish were examined for the presence of vertebral abnormalities, by in vivo examination, whole mount staining for bone and cartilage and histology and micro-computed tomography (CT) scanning. Exercise zebrafish developed a significantly higher rate of lordosis in the haemal part of the vertebral column. At the end of the experiment, the frequency of lordosis in the control groups was 0.5 ± 1.3% and that in the exercise groups was 7.5 ± 10.6%, 47.5 ± 10.6% and 92.5 ± 6.0% of 5.0, 6.5 and 8.0 TL∙s-1 , respectively. Histological analysis and CT scanning revealed abnormal vertebrae with dorsal folding of the vertebral body end plates. Possible mechanisms that trigger lordotic spine malformations are discussed. This is the first study to report a quick, reliable and welfare-compatible method of inducing skeletal abnormalities in a vertebrate model during the post-embryonic period.

Effects of temperature and water turbulence on vertebral number and body shape in Astyanax mexicanus (Teleostei: Characidae).

Environmental changes can modify the phenotypic characteristics of populations, which in turn can influence their evolutionary trajectories. In ectotherms like fishes, temperature is a particularly important environmental variable that is known to have significant impacts on the phenotype. Here, we raised specimens of the surface ecomorph of Astyanax mexicanus at temperatures of 20°C, 23°C, 25°C, and 28°C to examine how temperature influenced vertebral number and body shape. To increase biological realism, specimens were also subjected to two water turbulence regimes. Vertebral number was counted from x-rays and body shape variation was analysed using geometric morphometric methods. Temperature significantly impacted mean total vertebral number, which increased at the lowest and highest temperatures. Fish reared at lower temperatures had relatively more precaudal vertebrae while fish reared at higher temperatures had relatively more caudal vertebrae. Vertebral anomalies, especially vertebral fusions, were most frequent at the extreme temperature treatments. Temperature significantly impacted body shape as well, with fish reared at 20°C being particularly divergent. Water turbulence also impacted body shape in a generally predictable manner, with specimens reared in high turbulence environments being more streamlined and having extended dorsal and anal fin bases. Variation in environmental variables thus resulted in significant changes in morphological traits known to impact fish fitness, indicating that A. mexicanus has the capacity to exhibit a range of phenotypic plasticity when challenged by environmental change. Understanding the biochemical mechanisms underlying this plasticity and whether adaptive plasticity has influenced the evolutionary radiation of the Characidae, are major directions for future research.

Cervical vertebral body growth and emergence of sexual dimorphism: a developmental study using computed tomography.

The size and shape of human cervical vertebral bodies serve as a reference for measurement or treatment planning in multiple disciplines. It is therefore necessary to understand thoroughly the developmental changes in the cervical vertebrae in relation to the changing biomechanical demands on the neck during the first two decades of life. To delineate sex-specific changes in human cervical vertebral bodies, 23 landmarks were placed in the midsagittal plane to define the boundaries of C2 to C7 in 123 (73M; 50F) computed tomography scans from individuals, ages 6months to 19years. Size was calculated as the geometric area, from which sex-specific growth trend, rate, and type for each vertebral body were determined, as well as length measures of local deformation-based morphometry vectors from the centroid to each landmark. Additionally, for each of the four pubertal-staged age cohorts, sex-specific vertebral body wireframes were superimposed using generalized Procrustes analysis to determine sex-specific changes in form (size and shape) and shape alone. Our findings reveal that C2 was unique in achieving more of its adult size by 5years, particularly in females. In contrast, C3-C7 had a second period of accelerated growth during puberty. The vertebrae of males and females were significantly different in size, particularly after puberty, when males had larger cervical vertebral bodies. Male growth outpaced female growth around age 10years and persisted until around age 19-20years, whereas females completed growth earlier, around age 17-18years. The greatest shape differences between males and females occurred during puberty. Both sexes had similar growth in the superoinferior height, but males also displayed more growth in anteroposterior depth. Such prominent sex differences in size, shape, and form are likely the result of differences in growth rate and growth duration. Female vertebrae are thus not simply smaller versions of the male vertebrae. Additional research is needed to further quantify growth and help improve age- and sex-specific guidance in clinical practice.

Short-term foetal immobility temporally and progressively affects chick spinal curvature and anatomy and rib development.

Congenital spine deformities may be influenced by movements in utero, but the effects of foetal immobility on spine and rib development remain unclear. The purpose of the present study was to determine (1) critical time-periods when rigid paralysis caused the most severe disruption in spine and rib development and (2) how the effects of an early, short-term immobilisation were propagated to the different features of spine and rib development. Chick embryos were immobilised once per single embryonic day (E) between E3 and E6 and harvested at E9. To assess the ontogenetic effects following single-day immobilisation, other embryos were immobilised at E4 and harvested daily between E5 and E9. Spinal curvature, vertebral shape and segmentation and rib development were analysed by optical projection tomography and histology. The results demonstrated that periods critical for movement varied for different aspects of spine and rib development. Single-day immobilisation at E3 or E4 resulted in the most pronounced spinal curvature abnormalities, multiple wedged vertebrae and segmentation defects, while single-day immobilisation at E5 led to the most severe rib abnormalities. Assessment of ontogenetic effects following single-day immobilisation at E4 revealed that vertebral segmentation defects were subsequent to earlier vertebral body shape and spinal curvature abnormalities, while rib formation (although delayed) was independent from thoracic vertebral shape or curvature changes.A day-long immobilisation in chicks severely affected spine and rib development, highlighting the importance of abnormal foetal movements at specific time-points and motivating targeted prenatal monitoring for early diagnosis of congenital scoliosis.