Shanxi Graben System Research Articles

River profile and relict landscape analysis reveal the Cenozoic geomorphic evolution of the Nihewan Basin in North China

The Nihewan Basin, renowned for the numerous world-class Paleolithic sites and diverse mammalian fauna preserved in its sedimentary sequence, is a key area for studying early human evolution in East Asia. Despite extensive studies on the fluvial-lacustrine basin sediments, the evolution and formation process and mechanism of the Nihewan Basin and Nihewan Paleolake remain unclear. Here we assess the spatial pattern and recent history of rock uplift of the Liuleng Shan, one of the main bedrock mountain ranges encompassing the Nihewan Basin, using river profile and topographic analysis. The transient topography of the Liuleng Shan is characterized by two generations of elevated non-lithological slope-break knickpoints that delimit the uplifted Dianziliang and Tangxian relict landscape surfaces, suggesting two episodes of accelerated rock uplift during the Cenozoic. We link the first phase of rapid rock uplift to the initiation of the central and northeastern portions of the North Liuleng Shan Fault (NLSF) during the opening of the Shanxi Graben System in the Late Miocene, implying the initiation of the Nihewan Basin at this time. We propose that the dextral transtensional southwestern portion of the NLSF formed and propagated northeastward at around 4.2 Ma, and was responsible for the second phase of surface uplift. This phase of deformation also terminated the Tangxian planation process and led to the further subsidence of the Nihewan Basin. Accordingly, drainage rearrangement and fault activity hydrologically closed the Nihewan Basin, resulting in the development of the Nihewan Paleolake. Our findings outline a timeline for the geomorphic evolution of the Nihewan Basin and Nihewan Paleolake, highlighting the dominant role of tectonics in their formation.

Study examining active buried faults using shallow seismic reflection and joint multi-drilling: A case from the Xinding Basin, Shanxi Graben system

Active buried faults are a type of potential seismic source that are typically very difficult to explore and study in detail due to their undetectability using traditional geological survey methods. A ring of active basins has currently formed around the stable Ordos Block. However, few studies have been conducted to determine the activity of buried faults in these basins. This study utilized the Xinding Basin of the northern Shanxi Rift System as the target area. Based on comprehensive evidence from shallow seismic exploration, joint geological multi-drilling, and Quaternary dating methods, a new buried active fault named the Xinzhou Fault (XF) was identified in the Dingxiang Graben, a subbasin of the Xinding Basin. The youngest faulted layer was dated to earlier than 144.84 ± 16.92ka and is likely at approximately 118.94 ± 15.2ka. The slip rate of the newly observed Xinzhou Fault could be limited to 0.08–0.12 mm/a since the Late Pleistocene. This fault that was the first NW-striking active fault in the Shanxi Rift System is likely a secondary tension fracture of the main NE-striking Holocene basin-controlling faults. Currently, a strong earthquake at M7.2 can be considered as the maximum seismic potential of the XF, thus posing a significant seismic hazard to the area of the Xinding Basin. The discovery of this NW-striking active fault likely presents a low seismic risk. However, the occurrence of a strong earthquake should not be ignored due to its high seismic hazard.

Fault Extension Characteristics of the Middle Section of Shanxi Graben System and the Seismogenic Environments of the Hongdong and Linfen Earthquakes

Fault Extension Characteristics of the Middle Section of Shanxi Graben System and the Seismogenic Environments of the Hongdong and Linfen Earthquakes

Morphometric analysis of the North Liuleng Shan Fault in the northern Shanxi Graben System, China: Insights into active deformation pattern and fault evolution

The North Liuleng Shan Fault (NLSF) is one of the major active faults in the northern Shanxi Graben System (SGS) in North China. Although the fault has been investigated extensively in terms of late Quaternary activity, its active deformation pattern is still poorly characterized. In this study, we conducted a morphometric analysis of the fault using various geomorphic indices to assess the along-strike relative uplift rates, which include basin relief, slope, mountain front sinuosity (Smf), hypsometric integral (HI) and curves, valley floor width-to-height ratio (Vf), asymmetry factor (Af), basin elongation ratio (Re), and normalized channel steepness indices (ksn). Our findings indicate that the central portion of the fault has experienced higher relative uplift rates than the southwestern and northeastern portions, as demonstrated by higher basin-averaged slopes and ksn values, and lower Vf, Re, and Smf values. This spatial distribution pattern of relative uplift rates appears to correlate well with along-strike changes in the fault geometry and kinematics of the NLSF. We interpret the EW-striking, central portion of the NLSF as a releasing bend formed by the NE-striking, right-stepping, en-echelon southwestern and northeastern portions of the fault system, which are characterized by right-lateral oblique slip. Furthermore, the northeastward increase in HI values along with the regional basin evolution history suggest that the NLSF likely propagated from southwest to northeast. We propose that the southwestern portion of the fault most probably initiated earlier and that the central and northeastern portions formed later as extensional structures at the termini of the fault zone. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the tectonics and genesis of the basin-and-range geomorphology in the northern SGS.

Direct Evidence for Dextral Shearing in the Shanxi Graben System: Geologic and Geomorphologic Constraints From the North Liulengshan Fault

AbstractThe Shanxi Graben System (SGS) is one of the first‐order Cenozoic tectonic features in North China. Understanding the kinematics of this tectonic system is crucial for deciphering the mechanism of continental rifting and the deformation pattern across North China. Although the SGS has long been thought to be a right‐lateral, transtensional shear zone, the geologic and geomorphologic evidence for dextral strike‐slip along its internal faults was slim and even controversial. Field investigations, interpretations of satellite imagery, and construction of decimeter‐scale digital elevation models from unmanned aerial vehicle surveys were used in this work to investigate the tectonic geomorphology of the eastern segment of the North Liulengshan Fault (NLSF) in the northern SGS. Although this fault segment was previously thought to be a pure normal fault, the presence of geomorphic features such as right‐laterally offset terrace risers and gullies, along with an analysis of fault‐slip data, suggests a component of right‐lateral strike‐slip displacement. Combined with optically stimulated luminescence dating of offset fluvial terraces, the late Quaternary right‐lateral strike‐slip and vertical slip rates of this fault segment are both estimated to be ∼0.2–0.3 mm/yr. The discovery of dextral strike‐slip along the NLSF provides compelling direct evidence for determining the dextral transtensional kinematics of the SGS. This puts new constraints on our knowledge that the evolution of the SGS is primarily driven by the outward expansion and growth of the Tibetan Plateau and supports the “bookshelf” rotation kinematic model for North China.

Large river chronology along the Jinshaan Gorge on the Yellow River and its implications for initialization

The ancient fluvial terrace is one of the keys to understanding how a large river develops in long-term landform evolution. However, surface erosion usually dissects the once extensive terrace into discontinuous segments and makes it difficult to explore the evolution of a large river worldwide. Fortunately, an exception is found in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River (JGYR), which preserves many Late Miocene-Late Quaternary fluvial terraces and thus can help understand the origin and evolution of a large river. Detailed investigation of the high terraces along the JGYR indicates a broad valley that was later superposed by a V-shaped valley due to rapid incision. To constrain the timeframe in which the broad valley persisted, as well as the onset time of the V-shaped valley formation, we select ten typical fluvial terrace profiles, apply terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) 26Al/10Be burial dating to yield the ages of terrace deposits, and correct the results by considering both inherited and postburial nuclide production during slow red clay and loess deposition. Integrated with previous studies of magnetostratigraphic ages, our chronological results show that the lateral erosion and valley widening of the infant JGYR formed a broad valley during ca. 8–3.7 Ma; subsequent downward incision began ca. 3.7 Ma, accelerated to form a V-shaped valley and incising meanders into the initial broad valley since ca. 2.5 Ma. Moreover, most terrace ages plot in either periodic or short-lived arid conditions during ca. 8–3.7 Ma, while a distinctive downward incision has occurred under strengthened oscillating arid conditions since ca. 2.5 Ma, suggesting that climate aridification favours terrace aggradation, and tectonic uplift mainly dominated incision, which was consistent with the onset of the extension of the Shanxi Graben System ca. 8 Ma and the enhanced uplift of the Ordos Block since ca. 3.7 Ma.

Variations of crustal thickness and average Vp/Vs ratio beneath the Shanxi Rift, North China, from receiver functions

The Shanxi Rift located in the central part of the North China Craton (NCC) as a boundary between the Ordos block and the Huabei basin. The Shanxi graben system is a Cenozoic rift and originated from back-arc spreading related to westward subduction of the western Pacific and far field effects caused by northward subduction of the Indian plate. It has also had strong earthquake activity in China since the Quaternary. To investigate the tectonic evolution and tectonic setting of strong earthquakes in the Shanxi Rift, we apply the receiver function H-kappa stacking method to determine the crustal thickness and average Vp/Vs ratio in the area. The results show that the thickness of the crust increases from approximately 30 km in the Huabei basin to approximately 47 km in the Yinshan Mountains with a close correlation between the Moho depth and topography. The Yuncheng, Linfen and Taiyuan grabens have varying degrees of crustal thinning. The crustal average Vp/Vs ratio in the Shanxi Rift has significant heterogeneity; the high Vp/Vs ratio (~ 1.85) are found in the Datong and Yuncheng grabens, and Vp/Vs ratio of the Taiyuan and Linfen grabens is approximately 1.75 which close to the global average value ~ 1.782. Combining the observations in this study with previous research, we suggest that the grabens in the Shanxi Rift experienced extensional deformation from south to north and that the possibility of strong earthquakes in the central part of the Shanxi seismic belt is greater than that on the northern and southern sides.

Dynamic Divide Migration as a Response to Asymmetric Uplift: An Example from the Zhongtiao Shan, North China

Previous numerical–analytical approaches have suggested that the main range divide prefers to migrate towards the high uplift flank in the asymmetric tectonic uplift pattern. However, natural examples recording these processes and further verifying the numerical simulations results, are still lacking. In this study, the landscape features, and the probable drainage evolution history of the Zhongtiao Shan, a roughly west-east trending, half-horst block on the southernmost tip of the Shanxi Graben System, were investigated through the geomorphic analyses (i.e., slope and steepness distributions, and the Gilbert and χ metrics). The topographic slope and steepness results indicate that the Zhongtiao Shan, controlled by the north Zhongtiao Shan normal fault, experiences asymmetric uplift and erosion patterns, with higher uplift and erosion on the north range. In addition, the Gilbert and χ metrics suggest that the western part of the main divide is currently stable, while the eastern divide is moving southward. According to the drainage divide stability criteria, we suggest that the uplift and erosion, on the fault side, balance each other well on the western part of the range, while on the eastern part, the uplift is outpaced by the erosion. In addition, a dynamic divide migration model in the asymmetric uplift condition is proposed, indicating that the interaction between uplift and erosion controls the migration and/or stability of the main divide. Deducing through this dynamic model, we suggested that the eastern segment of the north Zhongtiaoshan Fault must have experienced higher activities in the geological history, and the western fault may remain its activity along with the mountain relief generation. This gives a case that specific information on asymmetric neotectonic history and landscape evolution in an orogenic mountain can be uncovered by the proposed dynamic model.

Active tectonics, paleoseismology and seismic hazards of the piedmont Xizhoushan fault zone in the Shanxi graben system, North China Block

Abstract Major active strike-slip fault zones in graben systems play an important role in releasing the strain energy. In this study, the active tectonics, paleoseismicity and seismic hazards of the Xizhoushan Fault Zone (XFZ) in the Shanxi graben system, North China Block (NCB), are examined through high-resolution satellite image interpretations, field investigations, outcrop and trench excavations, and dating of geochronology samples. Modern alluvial terraces of gullies and loess accumulations are systematically deflected and/or offset with co-seismic collapse, landslides and scarps, indicating that the XFZ has been active in the late Quaternary and is characterized by normal dextral strike-slip movements. The late Holocene slip rate of the XFZ is estimated to be ~2.0 ± 0.2 mm/yr in the horizontal and 0.5 ± 0.10 mm/yr in the vertical. Field observations reveal that at least three morphogenic earthquakes occurred on the XFZ in the Holocene, hinting at an average recurrence interval of ~3000 yrs. The latest event occurred at ~1.50 ± 0.6 ka BP and very likely corresponds to the 1038 CE Dingxiang M 7¼ event. The penultimate event occurred at ~4.10 ± 1.60 ka BP, and the antepenultimate event is inferred to have occurred between ~13.17 ± 1.43 ka BP and ~8.29 ± 0.90 ka BP. Our studies suggest that the strain energy accumulating along the XFZ is released by repeated strike-slip displacements of the modern stream channels, alluvial terraces and loess accumulations, while the earthquake potential (M ≥ 7) is low in the short term. The research also hints that the present dextral slip along NNE-trending faults has replaced the once predominately extensional deformation in the NCB.

Crustal density structures and isostasy beneath the Western North China craton, Trans-North China Orogen, and surrounding regions

To determine the lateral and vertical variations in crustal structure and their influence on the seismicity of the Western North China Craton, the Trans-North China Orogen, and the surrounding regions, the wavelet multi-scale structures, Moho depth, crustal density structures, and isostatic state are modelled using Bouguer gravity anomaly data, topography, and earthquake focal mechanisms. We obtained homogeneous crustal densities and deviations of <1 ​km between the crustal thicknesses estimated from the isostatic model and those inverted from the Bouguer gravity anomalies in the Ordos Block, the Inner Mongolia Suture Zone, the Sichuan Basin, and the Jizhong Depression. These results provide new evidence for relatively simple and stable continental crustal structures, and indicate that these regions will remain stable in both the vertical and lateral directions. The Hetao Graben, Yinchuan Graben, Weihe Basin, and Shanxi graben system have heterogeneous crustal densities and are isostatically over-compensated. In contrast, the crust beneath the Yinshan Uplift, Lvliang Uplift, and northern and central Taihang Uplift is thin and under-compensated. The heterogeneous crustal densities and non-isostatic state beneath the Tibetan Plateau and Qinling Central China Orogen indicate that these two blocks are unstable in the vertical and lateral directions. Although Cenozoic deformation of the North China Craton is thought to be driven by lithospheric stresses related to the India-Eurasia collision and Pacific slab retreat in South East Asia, we suggest that gravitational potential energy created by the heterogeneous crustal structure modulates these first-order forces. The results of this study could constrain the causes of seismicity in systems surrounding the Ordos Block.

Climatically driven formation of the Tangxian planation surface in North China: An example from northwestern Zhongtiao Shan of the Shanxi Graben System

Climatically driven formation of the Tangxian planation surface in North China: An example from northwestern Zhongtiao Shan of the Shanxi Graben System

Paleomagnetic age of the Tangxian planation surface, northwestern Zhongtiao Shan of the Shanxi Graben System, North China

A numerical formation age for the Tangxian planation surface (TXPS) in North China is still controversial. The TXPS, beveled across paleoarchean basement rocks, is overlain by late Cenozoic conglomerate, aeolian red clay, and loess. The magnetostratigraphy of two late Cenozoic deposition sections is established, and two other sections are recorded and measured in this work. The magnetostratigraphy indicates six normal magnetozones (N1 to N6) and six reverse magnetozones (R1 to R6). These magnetozones are correlated to chron C1n through C2An.1r, indicating that the TXPS was formed at 3.12–3.03Ma. The characteristics of the Zhongtiao Shan tectonic uplift and its relationship with the Tibetan Plateau and Ordos Block are discussed in terms of tectonic uplift. The TXPS formation and accumulation of the late Cenozoic sediments are mainly controlled by tectonic activities. The formation and uplift of the TXPS with a lag in the Shanxi Graben System is consistent with the activities of the Tibetan Plateau and Ordos Block, implying that the NE extension of the Tibetan Plateau epeirogenic uplift advances successively.

Crustal structure beneath Beijing and its surrounding regions derived from gravity data

In this paper we use gravity data to study fine crustal structure and seismogenic environment beneath Beijing and its surrounding regions. Multi-scale wavelet analysis method is applied to separating gravity fields. Logarithmic power spectrum method is also used to calculate depth of gravity field source. The results show that the crustal structure is very complicated beneath Beijing and its surrounding areas. The crustal density exhibits laterally inhomogeneous. There are three large scale tectonic zones in North China, i.e., WNW-striking Zhangjiakou-Bohai tectonic zone (ZBTZ), NE-striking Taihang piedmont tectonic zone (TPTZ) and Cangxian tectonic zone (CTZ). ZBTZ and TPTZ intersect with each other beneath Beijing area and both of them cut through the lithosphere. The upper and middle crusts consist of many small-scale faults, uplifts and depressions. In the lower crust, these small-scale tectonic units disappear gradually, and they are replaced by large-scale tectonic units. In surrounding regions of Beijing, ZBTZ intersects with several other NE-striking tectonic units, such as Cangxian uplift, Jizhong depression and Shanxi Graben System (SGS). In west of Taihangshan uplift, gravity anomalies in upper and middle crusts are correlated with geological and topographic features on the surface. Compared with the crust, the structure is comparatively simple in uppermost mantle. Earthquakes mainly occurred in upper and middle crusts, especially in transitional regions between high gravity anomaly and low gravity anomaly. Occurrence of large earthquakes may be related to the upwelling of upper mantle and asthenosphere heat flow materials, such as Sanhe earthquake (MS8.0) and Tangshan earthquake (MS7.8).

Morpho-Sedimentary evidence of the Huoshan Fault’s late Cenozoic right-lateral movement in the Linfen Graben, Shanxi Graben System, North China

The Huoshan Fault, being of NEN strike, is one of the most important faults in the Shanxi Graben System of North China; it is the location of the 1303 A.D. Hongtong earthquake (MS = 8.0). The late Pleistocene and Holocene offset of some gullies that cross the fault and some fault scratches have proved its right lateral movement during the late Quaternary; however, until now, geological evidence to support the movement in the Neogene and early Quaternary was scarce. Our work provides further crucial evidence that supports both its movement in the late Cenozoic and the total right-lateral displacement since the Pliocene. The difference in the outcrop heights of the Pliocene sediment along the fault, the difference in the geomorphological development along the fault, the inconsistency in the lithological composition of the Pliocene proluvial gravels with the rock types within the catchments of the current upper stream, and the offset of the Pliocene alluvial gravels all completely indicate that the fault has always moved right-laterally since the Pliocene. Additionally, this evidence indicates that the accumulative displacement is up to 12.5 km. Based on the horizontal and vertical displacement of the fault since the Pliocene, the time-averaged horizontal slip rate of the fault is estimated to be about 3.5 mm/a, while the ratio of the horizontal to vertical offsets is about 3.8; these data are roughly close to the results that were acquired from the Holocene and the present movement of the fault. This similarity in the tectonic movement parameters may imply that the intensity as well as the configuration of the regional stress field has remained constant, and that no significant changes have taken place since the Pliocene.

Discussion on rotational tectonic stress field and the genesis of circum-Ordos landmass fault system

When the resultant of applied forces does not pass through the center of an active landmass, the landmass will rotate, giving rise to a rotational tectonic stress field. The motion of a fault along the principal stress plane is determined by the mechanic features of the plane. Tensile fractures occur on the faults in the direction of the principal extensional stress plane, and fault-depression basins will be formed under a long-term action. Thrusting and overthrusting occur on faults in the direction of the principal compressional stress plane, or folds may be formed as a result. Information on geology shows that the North China landmass, which remained stable and intact for a long time, became disjointed in the Eogene period. In the course of disjunction, anticlockwise rotation took place in the Shanxi-Hebei-Shaanxi (Jin-Ji-Shan) landmass, giving rise to the fault-depression system in its periphery. In the Pliocene epoch the landmass lost stability and its eastern boundary moved westward. As a result, the Shanxi graben system appeared and Ordos landmass was formed. Structural and mechanic features of the main faults around Jin-Ji-Shan landmass can be explained with principal stress plane of a rotational tectonic stress field.

Average recurrence intervals of strong earthquakes and potential risky segments along the Taiyuan-Linfen portion of the Shanxi graben system

Since the great 1303 Hongtong, Shanxi, earthquake of magnitude 8, 700 years have elapsed. To analyze the long-term seismic potential, this paper divides the Taiyuan-Linfen portion of the Shanxi graben system into 5 seismogenic segments. Based on data of historical earthquakes and GPS observation, the authors estimate mean seismic-moment rates and average recurrence intervals of strong earthquakes for the individual segments, and further analyze relative levels of current stress cumulation on the segments based on mapping b-values along the graben system by using the network seismic data for the recent over 30 years. The main result shows that the Linfen basin segment has an estimated mean seismic-moment rate of 2.21×1016 N·m/a to 3.03×1016 N·m/a, and its average recurrence interval for M=7.5 earthquake is estimated to be between 1 560 and 2 140 years. For the Lingshi-Hongton segment, the estimated average recurrence interval for M=8 earthquakes is between 4 300 and 5 100 years, equivalent to having a mean moment-rate of 2.58×1016 N·m/a to 3.10×1016 N·m/a. The contour map of b-values shows that the two segments of Lingshi-Hongtong and Linfen basin have been being at low or relatively low stress levels, reflecting that since the 1303 M=8 and the 1695 M=7.5 earthquake ruptures, the fault-plane’s strengths of the both segments have not been resumed yet. And the other two segments, the Houma and the Jiexiu-Fenyang, have relatively high stress levels, and have been already identified as potential risky segments for the coming earthquakes from the analysis combining with the estimated average recurrence intervals of earthquakes on the both segments.

Origin of ground fissures in the Shanxi Graben System, Northern China

Since the 1950s, hundreds of ground fissures have occurred in the Shanxi Graben System in Northern China. The fissures and related subsidence and differential settlement have caused and are causing substantial damage to homes, agricultural land, roads, canals, and other infrastructure. Although generally similar in appearance, the fissures have different origins. (1) Some fissures coincide with northeast-trending faults. Trenching shows that the fissures extend into the near-surface faults, increasing vertical offset clay beds and other stratigraphic markers at depth, and therefore are probably the surface expression of fault movements. (2) Some fissures are demonstrably related to accelerated groundwater withdrawal. This is particularly apparent in Xi'an City where groundwater levels have declined by about 15 m within 4 years. (3) Other fissures owe their origin to the well-known process of ‘soil collapse’. This is particularly common in the silty loessial sediments that occur within most of the valleys that comprise the Shanxi Graben System.

Recent tectonic stress field research in Shanxi graben system

By comprehension of earthquake focal mechanism solutions and the data of in-situ stress measurements, the tectonic stress field in Shanxi region has been summarized, which indicate that the stress state in this region is different from that of its eastern surrounding regions. The next, by fitting the measured data, the boundary forces that influenced the distribution of the stress field in this region has been studied using inversion method. The inversion results showed the following messages: the effect of the boundary force between the blocks is the main determinative factor for the recent tectonic stress field in Shanxi and the regional material and its property is a secondary factor; the horizontal main stress of tectonic stress field in Shanxi region is consistent with the stretch of fault basins.

Tectonic geomorphology in the Shanxi Graben System, northern China

The Shanxi Graben System is composed of a series of normal fault-controlled basins which are arranged in an s-shaped curve over a distance of about 1200 km. Active faults, mainly trending NNE–SSW, NE–SW, or ENE–WSW, caused blocks to become rotated and tilted, and river courses and terraces to become deformed. Volcanoes in the Datong Basin indicate that the formation of the Shanxi Graben System has a relationship to upper mantle activity and that the tectonic activity was intense during the middle Pleistocene. Arrangement and movement of the faults indicates there has been right-lateral shear in this area, which may have resulted from the northward push of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau.